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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF 
THE DAY 



CHIPS 



FROM A TEACHER'S WORKSHOP 




L. R. KLEMM, PH.D. 

FORMERLY SUPERVISOR OF GERMAN DEPARTMENT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 

CLEVELAND, O. ; PRINCIPAL OF A NORMAL DEPARTMENT, 

CINCINNATI, O.; AND SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC 

SCHOOLS, HAMILTON, O. ; INSTITUTE CONDUCTOR, 

AND AUTHOR OF NUMEROUS SCHOOLBOOKS 



BOSTON 

LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 

NEW YORK 

CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM 

1888 




Copyright, 1887, 
By LEE AND SHEPARD. 



All rights reserved. 
Educational Topics of the Day. 






TO 

CAPT. W. C. MARGEDANT, 

OF HAMILTON, OHIO, 

Cjjts iSooIt ts 33etifcatetJ 

IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OF HIS TRUE DEVOTION TO 

POPULAR EDUCATION, 

HIS ENTHUSIASM FOR RATIONAL TEACHING, 

AND THE WISE SUGGESTIONS, 

CHEERFUL ENCOURAGEMENT, AND WARM IMPULSE, WITH 

WHICH HE AIDED THE AUTHOR IN THE 

DISCHARGE OF HIS OFFICIAL DUTIES 

AS SUPERINTENDENT 

AND SELF-IMPOSED DUTIES AS JOURNALIST. 

L. R. KLEMM, Ph.D. 



PBEFACE. 



Many of the articles in this book appeared in- the lead- 
ing educational journals. They are here collected because 
they are thought of sufficient practical value to be thus 
preserved. In offering this book to the public, the author 
desires to have it understood that he does not undertake 
to present a complete system of education, but, beside some 
essays and historical dissertations, chips from his own 
educational workshop. Chips are useful for kindling 
fires. If these chips should help a little to kindle the 
fire of enthusiasm in the hearts of some teachers, they 
will be doing what they were intended for. Should the 
patient reader find a harsh word now and then in these 
articles, he may consider that they were written for the 
educational press; that is, for a purpose. To tone them 
down, would seriously change their character. Character 
is what a man is; his reputation, what people say of him. 
It is so with books. "Whatever reputation this book may 
get, the author does not propose to let that interfere with 
its character. He gives himself in the pages of this book, 
his mode of thinking and discussing, his manner of 
teaching ; and he sincerely hopes, that, though his manner 
may be found faulty, his sincerity of purpose, his good 

5 



6 PEE FACE. 

intention to benefit his young colleagues, will not be 
doubted. 

At present, the author is engaged in studying the schools 
in England, France, Holland, Germany, and Switzerland. 

After his return from Europe, he will offer a second 
volume, under the title, " Chips from Educational Work- 
shops in Europe." 



Hamilton, O., September, 1887. 

L. R. K. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE. 

OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 

First Letter. Method and Manner 13 

Second Letter. "Similia Similibus Curantur" . . . 17 
Third Letter. Cause and Effect; or, How to Keep 

24- 
Young 

Fourth Letter. The Old, Old Question 30 

Fifth Letter. Sketch of a Good School 35 

Sixth Letter. Stimulants in Teaching 40 

Seventh Letter. Teachers' Examinations .... 45 

Eighth Letter. Rapidity in Recitation 49 

Ninth Letter. Continuity of Instruction 54 

Tenth Letter. Why Take the Trouble ? 59 

CHAPTER II. 

FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPER VISOR. 

A Pertinent Question Answered 67 

The Medical Practice of a Teacher 75 

I. A Weak Speller 75 

II. The Rescue of a Dunce 78 

in. A " Bad " Boy in Arithmetic 81 

iv. A Boy " like Kaspar Hauser " S3 

Discipline. — A Reformatory Class 86 

Scenes from School-Life 91 

Professional Supervision 95 

Mechanical Virtues " 

A Case of Unintentional Cruelty 10- 

7 



8 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

PAGE 

FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 

Per-Cent System of Grading 107 

Competition in School Ill 

Memorizing the Printed Page 114 

Examination Questions 117 

From the Frying-Pan into the Fire 121 

The Outlook 126 

Catch-Words 128 

CHAPTER IV. 
SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 

I. Teach in Accordance with Nature's Laws . 133 
II. Teach in Accordance with Psychological 

Laws 135 

III. Teach Objectively; Appeal to the Senses . 137 

IV. Teach Intelligibly 139 

Methods of Teaching 142 

Definitions 142 

Didactic, Heuristic, and Systematic Methods .... 144 

The Essence of Method 145 

Analysis and Synthesis 147 

Summary of Methods of Teaching ...... 151 

CHAPTER V. 

THE ART OF QUESTIONING, AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Hints to Beginners 155 

The Socratic Method 159 

Two Examples of Socratic Questioning .... 162 

How the Mind Grows 165 

A Review Lesson in Psychology 169 

See, Do, and then Tell 172 

A Proof Positive 177 



CONTENTS. 9 

CHArTER VI. 

PAGE 

ARITHMETIC. 

How to Teach Fractions 183 

How to Teach Percentage 189 

A Device, not a Method 193 

Price-List of Commodities in the Schoolroom . . 197 

Primary Arithmetic 199 

Miss Celeste's Pennies 200 

CHAPTER VII. 

LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 

The Poet Schiller 205 

A Pertinent Question 215 

German in the Schools 223 

The Value of Grammar 228 

Polyglot English 229 

Misused Words 233 

A Practical Composition Lesson 235 

Spelling Taught Rationally 236 

A Suggestion in Spelling 239 

Garment and Substance of Thought 243 

Miss Lottie's Three Boys 215 

In Black on White 246 

CHAPTER VIII. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

A New Departure in Teaching Geography. . . 251 

History and Geography, the Siamese Twins . . 26S 

I. The Boundaries of Ohio and Indiana, etc. ... 268 

II. The Boundaries of Pennsylvania and Delaware . 272 

in. The Notch in the Northern Boundary 274 

iv. The Boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee . 277 

PaPvAllels and Meridians 282 



10 CONTENTS. 



A Poser 

Life Contradicting the Schoolmaster 
One Way of Getting* at the Idea . 
Odd Questions Oddly Answered .. . 
Elementary Work. — The Zones . . 



PAGE 

285 
287 
290 
292 
293 



CHAPTER IX. 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

Education in Rome 297 

The Ancient Germans 307 

An Interview between Pestalozzi and Dr. Bell . 315 

Prussian Schools Seventy Years Ago ..... 320 
Reformers and Promoters of Education during 

the Christian Era 323 

CHAPTER X. 
HISTORY. 

Why, When, and How to teach History .... 341 

Cause and Effect in History 356 

A Glance into the Middle Ages 380 

Inventions during the Middle Ages 387 

Natural Calling, or Not? 391 

A Bird's-eye View of Modern HiSTOR\ r .... 394 

What is Nihilism? 402 

A Talk with my Boys 405 

Our Country 406 

What I Heard from the Stump. . 407 



CHAPTER I. 

OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHSK. 



EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 



CHAPTER I. 

OPEN LETTEES TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 
FIRST LETTER. 

METHOD AND MANNER. 

My dear Young Lady, — You seek information 
upon a commonplace subject, which, I will admit in 
the beginning, is not commonplace at all. You ask, 
" How would you impart knowledge to normally 
endowed pupils ? What method would you prefer for 
young children?" 

Did you consider that I might say, my young friend, 
there is no such thing as imparting knowledge? 
Reserve yoxxv incredulous smile until you have heard 
my explanation. I mean to say that any one who 
uses the term imparting knoivledge speaks erroneousl}', 
as it is wrong to say the sun rises or sets : he does no 
such thing. To impart knowledge, evidently means, to 
convey, to make knowledge part of the learner. Now, 
this is the very thing which, I claim, is impossible. 

Compare the psychological process of learning, with 
the physiological process of digestion. True, this is 

13 



14 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

a homely illustration, and not the most aesthetic ; but 
it is the most available. Can you impart a beefsteak 
to another person? You cannot. You can cook it 
well, serve it daintily, offer it with one of your sweet 
smiles ; but make that beefsteak a part of his body you 
cannot. The person will have to do the biting, chew- 
ing, swallowing, digesting, and assimilating, himself. 
You may season the beefsteak admirably, you may 
make it palatable, you may do any thing and every 
thing to entice him to eat it ; but you cannot per- 
form the process of digestion and assimilation for 
him. 

It is exactly so in teaching. You cannot impart 
knowledge. All that you can do, and that, I insist 
upon it, you must do, is to make knowledge palatable, 
to serve it well, to select it with reference to the child's 
mental stomach, to prepare it so that the child will be 
enticed to partake of it ; but impart it you cannot. 
The child's intellect grows as a plant does, from inside 
outwardly, not from without inwardly. Therefore, if 
you should hear of any one of whom it is said that he 
understands the art of imparting knowledge, you may 
take it for granted that something else is meant ; 
namely, that lie understands the art of cooking and 
serving facts well. Really, my friend, the teacher is 
to be a good cook of mental food ; and it depends 
upon his professional training and his experience, 
whether he becomes a chef, and can make chefs-d'oeuvre, 
and deserves a salary such as is paid to a chef cle 
cuisine at Delmonico's or the Hoffman House, or a 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 15 

Bridget who tortures the family with execrable experi- 
ments, and is finally degraded to scullery work. 

Do not feel down-hearted or insulted because I com- 
pare the teacher with a cook, for all similes are more 
or less lame. Remember that we may compare the 
teacher's profession with that of the physician, and 
3*ou will feel consoled. Diseased digestive organs 
need specially prescribed diet, and so you will be 
obliged to diet pupils whose mental faculties are either 
in an acute or a chronic state of disease. Here, you 
see, we are approaching the domain of the physician. 
But, forsooth, there is more similarity between the 
cook and the teacher than we are willing to admit. 
I am very sorry to say that few chefs in teaching 
have ever reached the salary which chefs de cuisine 
in some large hotels in New York receive ; but it only 
proves the truth of what a lady of my acquaintance 
sometimes says, with a reproachful Jook across the 
table, when I find some dishes not suited to my palate : 
"Men are all stomach." As a rule, we prize our 
stomachs higher than our brains. Remember that 
when a man is obliged to economize, he begins by 
stopping his journals ; he thinks he can afford to 
dispense with mental food. 

When I say the teacher is like unto the cook, I do 
not mean to exclude the other, a more vital, part of 
his duty, which consists in training the child. He is 
to be at all times both a teacher and a trainer. I 
merely mention this to avoid a misunderstanding 
which might arise in your mind, as to the importance 



16 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

of the teacher's profession ; but I answered your 
question, " How do } T ou impart knowledge? " 

And now your second question : ' ' What method do 
you prefer for young children? " I seriously think 
that you are not quite aware of what the word method 
signifies. When Shakspeare said, ' r Though this be 
madness, yet there is method in it," did he use the 
word "method" correctly? Or, when a corn-doctor 
advertises his method of cutting corns to be far 
superior to that of any other doctor, does he use the 
word ' ' method ' ' correctly ? Reflect upon these two 
cases, and then listen to this definition : Method is 
a way of reaching a given end by a series of acts which 
tend to secure it. There can be no question as to 
Shakspeare 's correct use of the word. In our days, the 
word " method " has fallen into disrespect by abuse. 
The educational journals are full of small, insignificant 
devices, all termed methods, which are nothing else 
than variations of one and the same thing. People 
confound mere mannerism with method. Let me 
quote an authority on this subject, — Dr. Soldan of 
St, Louis : — 

"Perhaps this difference between method and man- 
ner will appear better, if we use an illustration which 
is supported by the etymology of the word 'method.' 
Suppose it is proposed to establish' a connection 
between two cities. For this purpose, a road is 
made. This road will be used by all that go from 
one city to the other, and by all kinds of individuals : 
it is the same road for all, and not liable to be 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 17 

changed by individual whims or notions. But the 
manner in which the road is used varies" very much : 
somQ will* walk, others will run, and others still will 
ride. The road, in our illustration, represents the 
method in pedagogics. It may be used by the most 
widely different individuals : the way in which people 
make use of it is the manner. Manner cannot be 
thoroughly specified or defined. Here the utmost 
freedom must be allowed to teachers and pupils, to 
develop their own individualities." 

SECOND LETTER. 

" SIMILIA SIMILIBCS CURANTUR." 

My dear Young Friend, — You desire my advice 
as to what to do in a case of chronic laziness in a 
pupil. It is very difficult to advise by correspond- 
ence, — just as difficult as it is for a physician to cure 
a patient without a proper diagnosis made in his 
presence. Still, there are general rules evolved from 
numerous analogous cases, principles deduced from 
practice, which, if applied, may cover the case in 
question. I should, therefore, when brought face to 
face with the necessity of punishing, try to apply the 
principles underlying all punishments and rewards. 
One of these is, Punishment should be in harmony 
with the offence. 

This sounds rather philosophic, but it is eminently 
practical in its application. According to this rule, 
you would "keep in " a child who came late in the 



18 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

morning, as many minutes as its tardiness amounted 
to. According to the same rule, you would withdraw 
your confidence from a child who is given to prevari- 
cating. According to the same rule, you would cor- 
porally punish a child who has been found cruelly 
torturing an animal or a schoolmate ; that is, you 
would make him feel pain, so that he may understand 
pain. 

The homoeopathists in their medical practice follow 
the principle, " Similia similibus curantur" (like 
things are cured by like). Now, if you will bear in 
mind that a punishable child is a morally diseased 
child who is to be treated properly in order to be 
cured, you will see that there is a remarkable similarity 
between the teacher's and the physician's practice. 
Not that I mean to s&y that the teaching should -be 
done in homoeopathic doses. Heaven forbid ! Let us 
be allopathists in that. But in punishing, and more 
especially in rewarding, we must be homoeopathic by 
all means. 

Now, my dear young lady, I can imagine how your 
lustrous blue eyes fairly twinkle with the mischievous 
desire to nonplus me by asking, " If I am to apply 
the rule, ' Like cures like,' how am I to apply laziness 
in order to cure laziness ? Or, take a case of unclean - 
liness ? " It is a fairly victorious smile with which 
you propose this question ; yet, my young friend, your 
question is easily answered. Permit me to frame my 
answer in my own way, by first introducing it by 
general remarks. 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 19 

Preaching about faults, and admonishing, never yet 
improved the morals and manners of any one, particu- 
larly not those of a child, who is not able to compre- 
hend your good intention or your doctrine. The 
child's ethical feeling is blunted by much fault-finding 
and blaming. There is scarcely a fault in human 
nature but which can be successfully eradicated in 
early youth, provided the proper remedy be applied, — 
a remedy suitable to the individuality of the child. 
We are very apt to use "heroic means," — brutal 
means, we mean, but dare not say so. It is a well- 
known fact, that the first boy in a numerous family is 
oftener punished corporally than all the other children. 
As the parents advance in years, their discretion and 
dire experience teach them better modes of training. 

And now to our case of laziness. I was not the 
oldest in a line of five children, nor the youngest, for 
which I offer thanks devoutly and fervently to Him who 
thus decreed it. I escaped the rod at one end of the 
line, and being spoiled at the other. I remember with 
remarkable vividness, that, when I was about ten 
years of age, I had a " spell of laziness." Not only 
was I lazy in school, but also at home. You know, 
or ought to know, that there are times in which a 
child (be it from physical or psychical causes) is more 
or less indolent ; a time in which he hates school, does 
his tasks carelessly if at all, and is bent upon things 
foreign to any thing like duty. Punishment-exercises, 
increased demands upon his activity (such as writing 
a list of words ten times) , only increase the unwilling- 



20 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

ness to work ; corporal punishment makes the child 
morose and obstinate. Most teachers (and I use the 
word most, advisedly) stand before such a case as 
before an enigma whose solution ought not to be 
difficult. 

Listen to what my wise father did. When the first 
teacher's note came home, announcing my sliding into 
disgrace, he looked at me, but said not a word ; I 
noticed, though, that his watchful eye was ever upon 
me for a number of days. A week afterward another, 
this time rather lengthy, letter came by mail, set- 
ting forth my shortcomings and failings. My father 
read it to me, and then said, " I see, my boy, you 
are bodily weak. I think you are growing. I'll keep 
you home from school, and give you a chance to 
recuperate. You need not work at all until you come 
to the conclusion that it is better for you to work 
than to do nothing." 

Who could have been happier than I? I thought 
my father the wisest of mortals, and then proceeded 
to enjoy a chapter or two of " Robinson Crusoe ; " but, 
lo ! father mine took the book out of my hands, say- 
ing with a benign smile, but with a badly concealed 
twinkle in his eye, " Reading will hurt your eyes, and, 
when bending over the book, your back will suffer." 
Well, I "did not see it," but obeyed; taking up a 
kitchen-knife (you know that is always the sharpest in 
the house) to whittle a mast out of a chip to rig my 
boat. Again father mine interdicted, saying something 
of repose needed for the muscular system. Just then 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 21 

mother needed coal in the kitchen, and called me to 
fetch her some. I jumped up with delight, ready 
to go to the coal-shed. But father mine sagely re- 
marked, I must not be disturbed, lest my growing 
bones might suffer ; and then went out with the coal- 
bucket. 

I began to doubt the wisdom of that father of mine. 
But then it was delicious to lie on the lounge, and do 
nothing, so I stretched myself ready for a nap. I 
had scarcely fallen asleep, when I was rudely awakened 
by a wet ice-cold cloth, which father mine had applied 
to my head, saying I evidently had a headache, and he 
meant to cure his dear boy. To make a long story 
short, I was not permitted to do any thing, — work 
was prohibited, amusement prevented. Yet I got 
through the first day without dying of ennui. I even 
got through the second day ; at the end of which my 
belief in father's wisdom was firmly re-established, for 
I now saw clearly that he meant to cure laziness by 
laziness, or like by like. 

Still, young as I was, I did not mean to be out- 
witted, and braved out another day ; but ask me not 
to describe it. I was not of a phlegmatic temper ; and 
you may imagine how I felt all through that long, 
weary day, which seemed to me to be the bigger half 
of eternity. On the evening of the third day I " caved 
in," and announced that I wt guessed " I was again 
strong enough to attend school on the morrow. My 
father's face beamed with happiness, that his dear boy 
should have been cured so soon ; he had been prepared 



22 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

to hold the fort against "demon diligence" a week, 
but, if I thought my strength had returned, I might 
try school- work next day. And so I did ; but I carried 
a letter to my teacher in which the secret of my cure 
was not mentioned, for which omission I inwardly 
(very inwardly, rest assured) thanked my father. 

I remember well that one of my sisters was treated 
similarly when she had her spell of indolence. When 
she appeared in the kitchen, mother would, with much 
solicitude for her health, sa} T that steam might hurt her 
lungs. When she proceeded to sew for her dolls, it was 
said she must not exert herself. When she wished to 
take a walk with the other children, she was compelled 
to lie on the sofa, etc. With knowing glances I 
watched the course of treatment. It was amusing 
for me to see father and mother, act in harmony with 
a consistency which could not deserve a better purpose. 
It had the same salutary effect as in my own case. 

Now, my dear young friend, your victorious smile 
has disappeared, — almost, not quite, for yet you have 
something in petto. " What of the ivant of cleanli- 
ness? " you ask ; " how will you cure that? I cannot 
perceive what remedy will cure that, except good ex- 
ample." 

I knew a boy who was the terror of his mother on 
account of his criminal disregard of appearances. 
Dirty face, soiled and torn clothes, muddy boots, etc., 
— I need not further enumerate: the boy is by no 
means an exception. I advised her to apply my 
homoeopathic principle. She entered upon the idea 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACIIEB. 23 

with enthusiasm, and was successful. This is the way 
she proceeded : — 

" Huo-o, your clothes are always torn; you are, 
therefore, accustomed to wearing torn clothes. I shall 
henceforth abstain from mending your pantaloons and 
jackets." The boy cared nothing, and soon wore out 
his best " Sunday-go-to-meeting suit," as well as his 
every-day clothes. When he called for a clean collar 
or a handkerchief, mother would offer him a soiled one, 
cast aside by his brother, as being good enough for 
him. The boy protested, but with no avail. Finally 
his clothes became dangerously dilapidated, especially 
his breeches at a certain unnamable place. He asked 
for a new pair ; an old pair cast off by his bigger 
brother was offered as "good enough for him." In 
short, the boy was soon convinced that cleanliness is 
next to godliness ; for his young playmates fell off 
from him like friends in need, of whom it is said that 
a hundred weigh no more than an ounce. The other 
boys disliked to play with such a wretched-looking fel- 
low ; and he soon learned the bitter lesson, that, despite 
all inner value, appearances play an important role in 

life. 

Well, I hope to have convinced you, my fair young 
friend, of the truth that " like cures like " in pedagogy 
as well as in medicine. Modify these examples, change 
the mode of procedure to suit the circumstances of 
school, and you have powerful levers for cases of lazi- 
ness and want of cleanliness. 



24 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 
THIRD LETTER. 

CAUSE AND EFFECT ; OR, HOW TO KEEP YOUNG. 

My happy Young Friend, — It is a serious ques- 
tion which you ask me in your reply to uiy last letter, 
— more serious than you in your sweet innocence 
think ; serious and important because it concerns the 
very essence of success in teachiug, as well as in every 
other domain of human activity. Pardon me if I quote 
your words : they are too pithily framed to be buried 
ignomiuiously in the waste-basket. u Do tell me how 
I can keep young. Our superintendent, a venerable 
old gentleman with a wrinkled face, as full of acidity 
as a persimmon, remarked sagery on the platform: 
4 Teachers must endeavor to keep young.' I hadn't 
the heart to ask him for his own elixir, fearing he 
would prescribe a remedy which would make a mummy 
of me in fewer } 7 ears than it did of him. But he said 
it with such an air of conviction that I felt there must 
be some deep truth in it. Now } 7 ou, dear Doctor, have 
so happy a disposition, that if the advice had come from 
you I should have believed it implicitly. Do tell me 
the secret of preserving youth. Looking around at my 
numerous fellow-teachers, I notice many sour faces, 
which speak of disappointment, weariness, and an} T 
thing but serenity and preserved youth. Shall I be 
like them in a few years? " 

Well, my dear friend, Pindar, the great Greek poet 
and contemporary of Pericles, said that in the land of 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 25 

the departed it was spring all the year around. If the 
teacher's work is to be successful, it must be done in 
continual spring air : neither in the icy atmosphere of 
cold reason and cutting sarcasm, nor in the withering 
heat of passion. While the brow of the merchant, 
artisan, or day-laborer may be clouded without greatly 
interfering with the progress of the work he is perform- 
ing, the countenance of the teacher must be sunshiny 
and bright. From her heart must forever issue forth 
a stream of cheerfulness, because her disposition is 
reflected in the susceptible souls of her pupils. 

It is said that interest acts upon the learner as sun- 
shine and moisture do upon the vegetable germ in the 
ground. Now, the most important source of interest 
is the love for the teacher. A sour, moody temper 
will effectually kill the affection of the pupils, while 
cheerfulness will awaken it. ''Cheerfulness," says 
Jean Paul, tk is the sky under which every thing flour- 
ishes exuberantly, save poison." While I readily 
grant that cheerfulness is not dependent upon age, I 
notice that it is more frequently found in youth. Your 
superintendent, therefore, is right in his advice ; and 
he is the more sincere in it since he, perhaps, feels the 
want of it in himself. 

Now, for the sources of this everlasting youth and 
vigor. I like to speak in similes. The Greek mythol- 
ogy speaks of a giant whom Hercules had to conquer. 
During the combat, Hercules observed that the giant 
lost his strength when he was lifted up from the 
ground, and that his strength returned when he touched 



26 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

" Mother Earth " again. This is a proper illustration 
of your case. To remain young, means to preserve an 
interest in every thing and everybody surrounding you. 
This looks like a more formidable task than it really is. 
Teachers very frequently resemble the man who digs 
a hole into the ground, and throws the soil up around 
the edge of the hole. The deeper he digs, the higher 
becomes the embankment, and the smaller his horizon 
of vision. That is to say, being occupied with small 
thoughts, little things, weak and childish efforts, in- 
significant trifles (significant enough for both pupils 
and teacher in their work, but insignificant in regard 
to other things going on in the world) , they are apt to 
lose sight of what goes on in the community, among 
the people, — in fact, upon the world's stage. 

To avoid this atrophy of thought, you must be a 
diligent reader, and read at least one good daily 
paper, one bright, sparkling weekly educational 
journal, and several literary monthlies. The daily 
will keep you au fait with events in your immediate 
surroundings ; the educational journal will give j^ou 
wise advice, new thoughts and suggestions for your 
professional work, and will preserve you from sinking 
into that detestable swamp called self-sufficiency and 
self-satisfaction. A teacher who reads an educational 
journal, and profits by it, will never consider herself 
"finished." The excellent monthlies (I am not an 
agent, and therefore abstain from enumerating them) 
are so admirably conducted, that they set before you 
a palatable menu of historical, scientific, and other 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 27 

literary essays, thought-bearing and therefore thought- 
awakening. Do not fall into the terrible mistake of 
reading journals, newspapers, weeklies, monthlies, 
etc., indiscriminately by the dozen. It weakens your 
intellect and your memory, as over-eating will weaken 
the digestion. You need to read good books, fictitious 
and otherwise. I trust to your good sense and still 
better taste, that you will not squander your time in 
reading trashy novels. So much for the intellect. 

Now for your emotions. To keep young, means to 
preserve the power to love, — love for children, and, 
for that matter, love for the grown folks too. Love 
for children necessitates that you should interest 
yourself in their homes : their private affairs are your 
affairs also. A knowledge of their home surroundings 
is absolutely necessary for you to understand their 
dispositions, their susceptibilities, their sensibilities, in 
fact, their entire beings. If some thoughtless person 
should consider you a crank for thus interesting your- 
self beyond the schoolroom in the children's affairs, 
let me comfort you by saying that the crank is one 
of the most necessary devices for mechanical motion. 
There is not a machine without a crank ; and woe to a 
body of teachers, a community, or any body of people, 
without at least one crank ! Be you the crank, the 
crank of never-wearying affection, interest, solicitude, 
kindness, and charity, to your school ; and the glow of 
enthusiasm and the warmth of maternal love will keep 
you young, though you may be covered with the 
mimic snow of age. 



28 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

But, you may say, keeping young in mind and in 
heart is not keeping young in body. What shall I do 
to keep young in body ? The everlasting principle of 
cause and effect holds good in this also. It is said, 
" Mens sana in corpore sano;" and the opposite is 
true also. That is to say, happiness, a cheerful dis- 
position, and a bright mind, have their inevitable 
beneficial effects upon the body. They promote 
bodily health. Again a simile may illustrate a point. 
A hot-house plant withers when placed in the open 
air ; and, alas ! most schoolrooms are hot-houses, in 
the literal sense of the term. They are invariably 
over-heated. Keep the temperature to 65° F., and 
have the prudence to hang your thermometer, not ten 
or twelve feet above the floor, for safe keeping, as I 
found it some time ago in one of my schools, but only 
two or three feet above it ; in other words, in that 
stratum of air in which the children are compelled to 
abide. 

Not only the temperature, but also the composition 
of the air, should be considered. Therefore, ventilate 
your room. Ventilation is derived from ventus, the 
wind ; and therefore ventilation implies circulation or 
agitation of the air. As often as possible, therefore, 
change the air in your room completely. Yours and 
your pupils' rosy cheeks, elastic gait, gay spirit, 
bright looks, and happy disposition will be preserved. 

And last, but not least, don't worry. t; Sufficient 
unto the day is the evil thereof." Don't talk and 
think " shop " all the time. Nothing ages so much as 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 29 

a burden of worry. Above all, do not worry about the 
results of examinations. Be social, but do not keep 
late hours. Engage in some work totally different 
from the work done in school. Hear a good concert 
now and then. Be happy, and seek the company of 
happy people. Seek the chance to laugh heartily as 
often as possible. 

I shall not engage in telling you what to do in cases 
of sickness, but will conclude with a little advice which 
may seem outlandish, but is eminently sound. As a 
rule, the Americans have very little imagination ; they 
pride themselves on being dry, matter-of-fact people. 
Look at the Germans, and see what happy people they 
are, even in old age ! It is one of the postulates of 
German education, that imagination must be fostered. 
In Germany, fairy-stories are indulged in in youth to 
a much greater extent than is done in this country. 
Goethe's mother was one of those happy persons who 
see even on the darkest cloud a rosy border, whose 
temper is never ruffled, who sing and laugh and dance 
through life, and who beautify the lives of ail who 
associate with them. She invented numerous fables 
and fairy-stories for her children, and liked to tell 
them to her boy Wolfgang. When she was well 
advanced in years, and her son had reached the high- 
est height of fame and glory, she was asked how it 
came that Wolfgang resembled her so much in thought 
and action. "Ah," said she, "Wolfgang and I were 
young together." Go thou, my dear young friend, 
and do likewise. 



30 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

I cannot close my letter without a solemn word of 
censure. Reverence for old age will not make you old 
before your time, especially if that reverence is shown 
to a superior officer such as your superintendent. You 
may not consider your words, as quoted above, meant 
to be irreverent ; but they sound like it. 'Avoid even 
the appearance of irreverence. 

FOURTH LETTER. 

THE OLD, OLD QUESTION. 

My dear Young Lady, — You are in distress again, 
you say, because you fail utterly in suppressing noise 
in the schoolroom ; particularly is it " demon whisper" 
that will not down. You write, " Of course it would 
be foolish to punish the children for communicating ; 
but, having several grades of pupils in one room, I am 
compelled to leave one or two of them to themselves, 
that is, give them something to do, while my attention 
is engaged with another grade. Now, I cannot watch 
them constantly. Shall I appoint monitors to do the 
watching? If not, why not? " 

Your letter calls up in my mind a similar experience 
of my own. When I was young itf years, : — for young 
in heart and mind I propose to be till my dying day, — 
I taught a school in the countiy. My room was joined 
to another, and in these two rooms two teachers were 
engaged in teaching two hundred and sixteen pupils ; 
I had the u bigger half " of that number. Like your- 
self, I thought I had to suppress whispering and noise ; 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 31 

and I employed even so-called heroic means to stamp 
it out of my school. Like yourself, I gave the pupils 
something to do, it mattered little what. I failed 
utterly. One day my colleague mildly suggested that 
I made my life and that of my pupils wretched to no 
purpose. "For," said he, "you try to suppress all 
noise, aiming at a quietude in which a pin may be 
heard falling. The school ought not to be like a 
churchyard, but like a workshop, in which work, hard 
work, and much work, is performed. Work implies 
motion ; motion implies noise. There must be always 
a certain degree of bustle and noise in a school. 
Where it is suppressed, I pity the children." 

Of course, this remark was so just and wise, that I 
concluded to profit by it ; and I have never since 
rued it. 

But you do not mean that kind of noise which is 
the inevitable companion of earnest work. You mean 
noise which is made unnecessarily, and is the outcome 
of mischievous intention. The old apociyphal writer 
Sirach wrote more than two thousand years ago upon 
the subject, suggesting to employ children in order 
to keep them out of mischief. Now, the difference 
between employment for the hand, and fruit-bearing 
work, is very glaring. In order to make the pupils do 
the work assigned, with interest, it is essential that 
the assigned task should be in strict harmony with 
what you have prepared with them : in other words, 
you must awaken interest. 

For instance, if they read a story in their reader 



82 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

which the}' liked, it would be well to ask them to copy 
that story nicely for you. It is reasonable to suppose 
that they will go to work quietly, and do what is asked 
of them. If you have prepared the number lesson, 
as every lesson in arithmetic should be prepared, 
mentally, then set them to work to solve similar 
problems. Knowing how to go to work, it is again 
reasonable to suppose that they will make good use 
of their time. If they have had a lesson in orthog- 
raphy, such as words with ; ' ough," ask them to find 
a dozen or more words in their reader that contain 
"ough." Again it is reasonable to suppose that they 
will evince much interest in finding such words. If 
they had a lesson in geography on river-systems and 
kindred topics, ask them to trace the Mississippi, or 
whatever other river you may choose, and to write out 
the names of its tributaries in two columns ; the right 
tributaries in the right, the left tributaries in the left 
column. 

In fine, I mean, every task to be done by the hand 
should be prepared in an oral lesson preceding it. 
You may rest assured that every undefined or poorly 
understood task gives rise to disturbances of -various 
kinds, like communication in whisper, annoying ques- 
tions to the teacher, consulting of books and slates, 
etc. 

Acting upon this advice, you will find that the 
amount of whispering and noise will greatly decrease, 
if not vanish entirely. But be sure to make the tasks 
reasonably short. If they are too long, or if the 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 33 

time allotted for them is too long for doing the work, 
the children will seek relief in all sorts of distractions, 
of which whispering is the favorite. 

It will never do to scold the pupils for seeking 
relief. Always look for the cause of the trouble in 
yourself. Teach rationally, assign tasks which you 
are sure can be performed, and you will not need to 
suppress the " demon whisper." Of course this mode 
of acting will not permit the teacher to sit on her 
throne of idleness, — that is, at her desk. She must 
be constantly moving. She must, even when hearing 
another class, keep an e}*e upon those who are quietly 
at work ; must even go through the aisles, and inspect 
the work going on, helping here a lame duck, suggest- 
ing there, mildly and quietly, reprove where it is 
necessary ; in short, act like the motive power in a 
machine. 

Oh, yes, I see a veil falling over } T our lustrous blue 
eyes ; and a reproachful glance strikes me, hy which 
you mean to convey, "How shall I be able to stand 
such exhaustive work? Will it not wear one out in a 
short while?" No, my dear, it will not: it is not 
near as exhaustive as one good round sally of reproof 
and scolding. Anger causes loss of vitality much 
sooner than those quiet, pleasant, helpful. wa}'S, and 
the quiet, willing work of the children. I am sorry 
to say that, if it should wear you out/ you must find 
consolation in the cruel statement, that the schools are 
not made for the better accommodation of teachers. 

As to monitors, do not appoint any. The}' cause 



34 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

more mischief than can be righted. I have seen 
children grow absolutely wicked by acting as monitors. 
Rather appeal to their finer sense of honor,, than 
place one of their number over them to watch them. 
It engenders a feeling of pride in the monitor, and a 
feeling of resentment in those who are reported as 
transgressors. 

I have a personal and exceedingly unpleasant ex- 
perience with monitors, which leads me to be thus 
outspoken. When I was a bo} T , I went to a school 
whose teacher was master of the chair in a Masonic 
lodge. He was frequently called to assist at burials of 
brethren, and he always placed a monitor from out 
of our ranks over us. One day the monitor reported 
that Klem deserved punishment. Now, there happened 
to be two Klemms in that school, — one who spelled 
his name with one m; the second, myself, who spelled 
his name with two m's. The teacher grasped the 
nearest, and lammed him most furiously, saj'ing, " I 
will teach you rascals how to behave when I am out ! " 
I happened to be the unfortunate one. The monitor, 
harboring ill feeling against me, did not arrest the 
teacher's arm. He stood by without saying a word, 
until the process of inflicting a wholesome lesson was 
concluded. Then he coolly informed the teacher that 
he guessed he had better begin over again with the 
other Klem, who spelled his name with one m. It 
is barely possible that this incident prejudiced me 
against monitors in general . 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 35 



FIFTH LETTER. 

SKETCH OF A GOOD SCHOOL. 

My interesting Young Friend, — In reply to my 
last open letter, you have the kindness to say that 
my personal reminiscences are interesting, and that 
you desire to hear more of them. I can imagine how 
brimful of laughter 30U must have been when you 
saw your stately friend whipped by mistake ; but I 
assure you, though the job was done well, it was 
not appreciated by me at the time. I cannot record 
another case of that kind, nor would it do to palm off 
every corporal punishment which fell to m}' lot as 
having been inflicted by mistake. Nor were all the 
teachers I had like the one I mentioned. 

In order to make these letters instructive as well as 
amusing, I will proceed to draw the outlines of what I 
consider a good school. The task is very easy. I will 
take you into the school which I attended from my 
tenth till my sixteenth year. There is a great cry 
heard in the land, that pupils are obliged to study too 
many branches. This is an erroneous statement. The 
difficulty lies elsewhere. It is not the number of 
branches, but the manner of studying them, that causes 
dissipation. Permit me to sketch the way we were 
taught in the school mentioned above. We had two 
languages, Latin and French. To-day I remember 
ver}' little of my Latin, but a good deal of my French. 
Why? The Latin was taught to us very much in 



36 EDUCATIO'NAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

the way of a post-mortem examination. There was 
no Latin conversation, no Latin composition ; nothing 
but humdrum translation and veritable dissecting was 
done. Oar French teacher permitted no translations : 
all was life in his lessons. He talked to us in French ; 
we caught the pronunciation, made use of our limited 
vocabulary, and in a short while we boys used French 
as if it had been our mother- tongue. We had mathe- 
matics, but no text-book. We never saw a text-book 
of mathematics. All we were required to have was a 
ruler, a compass, and a number of note-books. The 
teacher supplied the subject matter. We had astro- 
nomical and physical geography, and as text-books 
nothing more than an atlas, and drawing-materials for 
drawing maps. The teacher was supplied with a 
tellurian, relief maps, and other appliances. 

We had geology, zoology, and botany, and a text- 
book, for all three branches no larger than a primer. 
The school was supplied with a set of illustrative 
charts, and a well-stocked museum of natural history, 
which contained a plentiful set of minerals, stuffed 
animals, an herbarium, and numerous preparations of 
papier-mache. We had anatomy and plrysiology, but 
no text-book for these branches. Instead of that we 
had a complete skeleton, a manikin, colored charts, 
and numerous preparations of papier-mache, plaster- 
of-paris, and rubber. We had history, and a teacher 
whose cheeks grew red with enthusiasm when he nar- 
rated to us the glorious deeds of ancient and modern 
nations. Our text-book contained sixty pages ; it was 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 37 

a little pamphlet. Oh the wonderful moments when 
we listened to him with bated breath ! We were 
Greeks with Pericles, Carthaginians with Hannibal, 
Romans with Caesar, Goths with Theodoric, Franks 
with Charlemagne, Swedes with Gustavus, Prussians 
with Frederick, Englishmen with Marlborough, Ameri- 
cans with Washington. 

We had natural philosophy, and a laboratory in the 
basement. We had history of literature, aud a library 
of several thousands of the best books. We had 
rhetoric and elocution, without even knowing that we 
were studying these branches : it was done in a practi- 
cal way, that resulted in efforts not to be despised. 
We had drawing and singing ; we had gymnastics and 
excursions. In fact, our course of study was a very 
complex thing ; but we obtained a goodly stock of 
knowledge, and a fair degree of skill, because we were 
made to acquire them by self -activity. 

Here is an example of a lesson in zoology: The 
stuffed swan was brought into the class. The professor 
stated the characteristic features of the swimming 
birds ; then we were called upon to find these features 
in every other species or family of swimming birds, 
which latter were exhibited either in natura or in 
pictures. Then things were discovered, and accur- 
ately stated, which proved their dissimilarity. Thus, 
around that one stuffed bird was grouped all our 
knowledge of such birds. Afterward we had to write 
down what we had learned. And this latter pro- 
cedure was the best thing of all ; for it was taken 



38 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

for granted that we knew nothing of a subject unless 
we could make it clear to others. Sometimes an oral 
statement was sufficient, but it had to be complete ; 
no essentials were permitted to slip our notice. When 
review week came, the pupils were allowed to catechise 
each other. Through all these studies there was notice- 
able the red thread of language-instruction. All in- 
struction was instruction in language ; and we were 
trained in an easy and elegant use of the mother- 
tongue without the paraphernalia of parsing and dis- 
secting, — simply by a careful use of the language. 

Each class made frequent excursions into shops, 
mills, factories, and into the woods. When we went 
into the woods, each one of us was armed with a 
small hammer for breaking minerals, pincers for dis- 
secting plants and blossoms, pins to fasten insects 
on cork or our hats, and a tin box hung over the 
shoulder by means of a strap. No one was without 
his note-book, in which he entered a sketch of the 
journey, and new names. Ten pennies (two and one- 
half to three cents) for a glass of milk at a farmhouse, 
and a roll of bread, was enough to keep body and soul 
together. What an indescribable charm these excur- 
sions had to us ! 

We fought the famous battle of Marathon over 
again, not in sunny Attica, but on a pasture or a 
stubble-field nearer home. I shall remember to my 
dying day, that, much to my regret, I had to attack 
the Pass of Thermopylae on the side of the Persians. 
In the Neander Valley we dug up remains of pre- 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 39 

historic men. Our professor id history, then a man 
in the prime of life (may kind Providence grant him 
a happy old age!) stood in the midst of his pupils, 
and with glowing cheek, and the chest-tone of con- 
viction, told us how brave Frederick had defeated the 
French, and sent them flying across the Rhine ; and 
amid the ruins of the ancient Falkenburg he made 
clear to us the victory of modern thought, and civil 
virtue, over the old feudal system. 

All our knowledge was experience, not dry book- 
wisdom. Coming home from such an excursion, or 
from a visit in a factory, we could scarcely wait to 
get a meal, so eager were we to write down an account 
of what we had seen and learned. School was a 
perfect paradise to us. Our school-bag was not heavy. 
The intercourse between pupils and teachers was very 
pleasant, because the teacher shared all the hardships 
with us ; and a case of truancy was unheard of. 

And now I come to the best feature of our school. 
There was no rivalry among the pupils (the worst kind 
of mental dissipation) , except in this : that each one of 
us strove hard to be recognized as "Primus" of his 
class for good deportment. That was a great honor ; 
for to the "Primus" was intrusted the class-journal, 
that important book upon the leaves of which were 
immortalized the flower of the school. And there was 
no per-ceut system of marking and grading. Every 
examination consisted of compositions (except in 
mathematics). So, for instance, in physiology or any 
one of the branches we studied, a limited number 



40 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

of themes were given out ; each pupil could choose 
one, and write as complete a dissertation as possible. 
These productions were not gauged on a scale of one 
hundred, for that would have necessitated little matter- 
of-fact questions which embraced nothing but bare 
facts. The examination papers were either satisfac- 
tory, or they were not ; in the latter case a second 
examination was required after a few weeks. 

It will easily be seen, that we were required to 
learn much ; but it will equally easily be seen, that 
we did learn a great deal more than we could have 
learned from books. But despite the multitude of 
studies, there were no mental cripples among us. 
Each one went to the limits of his capacity. All 
this was owing to the methods pursued. 

SIXTH LETTER. 

STIMULANTS IN TEACHING. 

My young Friend, — I was amused and astonished 
that my remarks about competition in school, and my 
slur at marking and grading, which you had found 
in my fifth letter, should have disturbed your mind. 
You ask me why I think that daily marking of pupils' 
work is an objectionable practice, amounting to a 
crime? I hasten to answer, and hope to show you 
the criminal aspect of the case. 

Now and then we find teachers who spend the 
better part of their school -hours in marking their 
pupils' work, and recording results. That this is 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 41 

considered a perfectly legitimate practice, may be 
seen from the fact that class record-blanks are pub- 
lished in great number, which make this marking of 
lessons a special feature of school-work. The main 
argument of teachers who use such blanks is, that 
they need something to stimulate their pupils' activity. 

Some of them are firm believers in the temperance 
or abstinence cause, and if any one, drunkard or 
otherwise, in their presence should claim that he needs 
alcoholic drinks to stimulate his appetite, these truly 
virtuous teachers would be horrified to hear it : yet 
they do a similar thing in school, and do it with a 
vengeance. It is reasonable to suppose that a good 
healthy person needs no stimulants. Food is taken 
willingly, digested and assimilated readily, without 
the aid of stimulants ; provided, always, the organs 
of digestion are in prime order. It is only jaded 
appetites which crave stimulants. 

Now, if a teacher claims that without the use of 
marks and similar paraphernalia, such as rewards 
(praise, cards, presents) and punishments, she can- 
not make her pupils work and stud}', it is also reason- 
able to suppose that their intellectual appetites are 
jaded, — in other words, that they have been brought 
lip from the earliest primary grade on a diet of stimu- 
lants ; or, that the intellectual food she offers is so 
unpalatable, stale, or tasteless, that an artificial stimu- 
lant, such as a Worcestershire sauce of marks, is 
needed to make it "go down." 

Don't talk of ambition needing to be stimulated ! 



42 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Every healthy organism will, at regular stated inter- 
vals, demand food, and develop an appetite. And 
so will a healthy youngster want intellectual food, 
without being stimulated by an appetizer in the form 
of a reward or punishment. Reward should only be 
given for any thing done in excess of duty, and 
punishment for neglect of duty. 

In all our teaching we should look toward the re- 
quirements of actual life. It is a well-known fact, 
that in life the simple performance of duty is not 
rewarded. It is not even fully paid ; and it seems 
extremely hazardous to accustom our boys and girls 
to expect a reward for simply doing their duty. 

Naturally, experienced teachers will say, in the 
foregoing argument, we presuppose our pupils to be 
normally endowed with intellectual appetites : expe- 
rience, however, teaches that that is a fallacy. To this 
I answer : Dyspepsia is not an hereditary disease, but 
invariably the sequence of maltreatment. That treat- 
ment may date back to infancy, but in some period 
of the child's life maltreatment has made the organs of 
digestion weak. It ma} r be granted, even, that there 
is a tendency to dyspepsia in the new-born child, just 
as there ma}' be a tendency to tuberculosis ; but with 
careful treatment the tendency could be overcome. 

Now T , view psychological organs as we do physiolo- 
gical ; and we may say, maltreatment, at some stage 
of the child's life, is the cause of this apparent neces- 
sity for using stimulants in teaching. No sane person, 
endowed with five senses, is left without an undying 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 43 

desire to acquire knowledge. Now, feed the child 
with indigestible sole-leather, such as learning rules 
from the printed page before they are applied, tested, 
and experienced by the learner, and soon the neces- 
sity of stimulants will make itself felt. Pupils who 
are taught rationally, according to the laws of psy- 
chology, never need stimulants nor appeals to their 
ambition. 

Fancy a teacher marking hourly, daily, weekly, 
monthly, annually, recording results, finding averages, 
and cop}ing them on report cards to be sent home ! 
Does she not resemble the kornak on the elephant's 
back, pricking and stabbing the poor beast to make 
him hurry up? There is too much disregard for the 
dignity of the child exhibited in the schools of our 
country, which cries for redress. 

I have come to distrust a teacher who practises 
marking the pupils' exercises ; and in all my many 
years of experience I have discovered, in the end, that 
this distrust is well founded. He is invariably a 
person who finds it too laborious to acquaint himself 
with, and obey, the laws of psychology ; and who 
considers the position of a slave-driver more pleasant 
than that of a gardener of children, who knows that 
education is a growth. 

And now you, my dear young lady, will ask, and I 
should consider 3-011 a poor logician if you did not 
ask: " I understand you, then, to mean, that, from 
the very start in the earliest primary grades, the 
marking should be abandoned. But what would you 



44 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

do in higher grades, where the marking and grading 
have become a custom? Would you suddenly abandon 
it there too? " A simile may answer you. 

In a sanitarium for inebriates, which I visited last 
year, I found this practice in vogue : Every inmate 
owned a bottle, which the physician had in charge. 
Every morning the bottle was filled with choice liquor, 
and whenever the patient desired a drink during the 
day, he went to the office, asked for his bottle (which 
was labelled with his name), and took his drink under 
the eyes of his medical adviser. But before he handed 
it back a pebble was thrown into the bottle, which 
decreased the .capacity of the bottle by just the size 
of the pebble. I was told that when the bottle is filled 
with pebbles the patient is usually cured of his immod- 
erate love for drink. Hand in hand with this slow but 
sure decrease of the quantity of liquor goes an increase 
of strength gained by suitable treatment, such as 
physical exertion, excellent, nutritious food, elevating 
conversation and occupation. 

This should show you the way out of the dilemma, 
my friend. Slowly, and with true conservative spirit, 
decrease the use of marks and grades. Let them 
slowly sink into disregard. Do not be hasty about it. 
Meanwhile make your teaching as interesting as 3 t ou 
can possibly make it. Pay due regard to the individual 
tastes of your pupils, and your school will inevitably 
become what it ought to be, 
penitentiary. 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 45 

SEVENTH LETTER. 
teachers' examinations. 

My interesting Young Friend, — It is a pleasure 
to correspond with you, and I am very sorry that you 
forbid me to quote you because you fear to be de- 
tected. Fear not. If yours had been the ouly case 
in which my discretion had been appealed to, I might, 
perhaps, be found wanting ; but you know I am in the 
years of advanced principles, — as was said of the old 
maid, when the poet's politeness would not allow him 
to admit that she was old, — and with age discretion 
develops wonderfully. 

I understand, then, that your certificate runs out, 
and that in order to secure a new one you must subject 
yourself to an examination. But I understand, also, 
that you do not fear the ordeal, having prepared your- 
self thoroughly. Yet you are not without some mis- 
givings ; I fully understand that. Indeed, I should 
have them too : I have a vivid remembrance of some 
of the many occasions on which I trembled in my 
boots, for I am a much-examined man. Nor do I 
blame you for feeling uneasy at the approaching ex- 
amination, for teachers' examinations in this country 
are very much of a lottery. They are as different 
from teachers' examinations in Germany, as a game 
of keuo is from a game of chess. 

What is the certificate to signify? Certainly, the 
ability to teach, and a documentary proof of the fact 



46 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

that you possess the necessary amount of knowledge. 
But ask yourself, Is the certificate which you now hold 
a documentary proof of your ability to teach? You 
may say, " Yes, because it distinctly states, iu black 
on white, that I have the requisite knowledge, and am 
therefore entitled to accept an appointment. Does 
not that mean I am able to teach? " No, my young 
friend, it does not. It merely means that you have 
the necessary amount of knowledge which you would 
need in case you were called upon to teach ; but it does 
not convey the idea that you have the ability to teach. 
Knowing is one thing, and being able to do is another. 
Knowing the multiplication-table does not carry with 
it the ability to teach it. Knowing how to analyze 
a sentence does not carry with it the ability to teach 
grammar and language. And even if it did, it would 
not make a disciplinarian of you. 

See what the law-students have to do. They go 
through a practical course in a lawyer's office. They 
go into court, and listen to the arguments and practices 
of full-fledged lawyers. They note the decisions of the 
judges. They copy briefs and other documents, and 
try their hand at composing them for the inspection 
of their masters. Then after several years of practical 
work of that kind, and after having acquired the neces- 
sary routine and amount of knowledge of the law, they 
present themselves before the board of examiners, and 
there are subjected to an oral as well as written ex- 
amination. When they are admitted to the bar, they 
have acquired not only the desired amount of knowl- 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 47 

edge, but also a skill in applying it. Now, when you 
went before the board of examiners for the first time, 
you had no skill in teaching ; you came fresh from the 
seminary, and had to give proofs of your knowledge, 
but not of your skill in applying it. At present, after 
two years' experience, you have acquired a great deal 
of skill, and, perhaps, lost some of that vast ( ?) amount 
of dry knowledge. 

Now see what the physicians do. The case is simi- 
lar to that of the lawyers. Students of medicine have 
to attend the clinic. They are obliged to accompany 
the attending physician upon bis rounds through the 
hospital. They are asked to prescribe, and to state 
what they would do in this or that case ; in fine, are 
prepared in the only practical and successful way to 
become good physicians, — namely, in accordance with 
the well-known proverb, " Practice makes the master.'' 

I remember the examination I had to pass in Prussia. 
It was an ordeal, and there was no sham about it, real 
or otherwise. For several days we " aspirants " were 
examined orally in all the branches the course of study 
prescribed. This was done very searchingly. Then 
followed a day of written examinations, on which three 
dissertations had to be furnished. After that followed 
several daj's of teaching. Every candidate (aspirant) 
was assigned a lesson. To my lot fell the geography 
lesson, one in mental arithmetic, and one in singing. 
It is true,, the lessons were short ; but it does not take 
long for any rational examiner to see whether a person 
has the ability to handle a class and teach lucidly. 



48 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. . 

Let me acknowledge that at that ordeal I quaked ; but 
much depended upon it, and therefore I conquered 
myself. 

As a matter of self-evidence the examiners did not 
mark us on a scale of one hundred. Their marks were 
as follows : veiy good, good, mediocre, poor, very 
poor. As a proof of the thoroughness with which the 
examination was held, I will betray the fact, that one 
of the young men, whom we considered the best of the 
students, a walking cyclopaedia, failed in the lessons 
which he had to give, and a certificate was denied him. 
Another who had given excellent lessons, and who was 
certainly a born teacher, failed in passing, because he 
could not solve the Pythagorean problem. All this 
may seem strange to you ; but when I compare our 
county teachers' examinations here in Ohio with the 
examinations held in Germany, I cannot help but wish 
that a revival would take place on this side of the 
Atlantic. 

Here only a written examination is required upon ten 
matter-of-fact questions in each branch, — questions as 
narrow as a razor ; such as, " Where was the conven- 
tion held that nominated Hayes for the presidency? " 
This question is not a fictitious one ; yet when a person 
has been successful in this written examination upon 
questions that are as remote from tile young teacher's 
actual duties in the schoolroom as the moon from the 
earth, she is awarded a certificate which says in sub- 
stance that Miss or Mr. So-and-so is entitled to teach 
for one, two, three, or five 3'ears, as the case may be, 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 49 

implying therewith that she or he has the ability to 
teach. It is a terrible outrage, and one that has been 
the source of much mischief. 

A manufacturer does not ask an applicant for work 
whether he knows the names of certain tools and other 
things, but whether he can work with them. When I 
want a good shoemaker, I do not ask him whether 
he has knowledge of political economy, but whether he 
can make a shoe ; and the test to which I would subject 
him would be a very practical one. But strange be- 
yond comprehension it is, that this practical nation, 
this nation of common-sense, should be so short-sighted 
as to test applicants for teaching only in regard to the 
quantity of knowledge they possess, and not with refer- 
ence to their skill in applying it. 

EIGHTH LETTER. 

RAPIDITY IN RECITATION. 

My happy Young Friend, — Do not hesitate in 
giving utterance to a question like your last one. It 
is of more weight than it may seem to you. You ask, 
' w Am I right in insisting upon the utmost swiftness in 
answering to the call for reciting? " I should say Yes, 
if you expect the answer to be a recital ; but I should 
emphatically say No, if the answer is not to consist 
of something which has been memorized. 

You see, as to quickness in answering the teacher's 
questions, or (to use a more technical term) as to 
rapidity in conducting recitations, I hold a somewhat 



50 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

different opinion from that so frequently advocated in 
educational periodicals. . This is said with due respect 
for the conviction of others, and the arguments they 
present. Let us first ask, What is a recitation? It 
is, and, in the true sense of the word, can be, nothing 
else than a " verbal repetition of something learned or 
committed to memory" (Webster). Now, then, I 
grant willingly, that in a case where something is, or 
has been, learned by heart, this swiftness in answering 
the call for recital is proper, judicious, and profitable. 
It causes not only a skill in making use of these intel- 
lectual tools in an exact manner, but also assurance 
and self-reliance in the pupil. 

But the next question will be, How far is this 
memorizing by rote to go ? Or, what is to be learned 
by heart, so that it be "recited"? Why, multipli- 
cation-tables, and a few other things which are of 
insignificance in comparison with the vast amount 
of conversation between teacher and pupils which can- 
not be called, and should never be, a " reciting." A 
more advanced opinion is, that the results of teaching 
which will last beyond the school years are acquired 
in a different way : I mean, by comprehending facts, 
turning them this way and that wa} T , and by constantly 
applying them in different ways and forms. All this 
needs time, needs thought, or rather the act of think- 
ing, and in some cases even a moment's investigation 
by means of the senses on the part of the pupils. 
Almost every good thought is produced slowly ; it lias 
to be stripped of all the many fetters that seem to 



OPEN LETTEBS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 51 

keep it tied down ; and, that done, it needs must be 
dressed in good language, neglige not being admissible. 

Will not the tendency to brilliant, rapid recital lead 
us back to the antiquated method of teaching, which 
had the enviable quality of not being a method at all? 
Will not this brilliant, rapid recital kill the thorough- 
ness advocated by pedagogical classics, with which 
they showed us how to unfold, to unveil, to develop 
the mind? It may be stated, in order to strengthen 
the argument, that, as far as instruction goes, the 
mind is the principal thing ; not grammar, reading, 
arithmetic, geography, botany, or physics, etc. The 
latter are means, not ends, of education; the ends 
are to strengthen the inborn powers of the children, 
of which memory is only one, and by no means the 
most important. 

Let the pupils forget the many details of these 
branches after they leave school ; their minds will have 
grown, and if the many details which we would allow 
the pupil to forget are obtained in the right way, and 
not merely learned by the tongue, they will not be 
lost after all. Riches thrown into our lap will soon 
diminish, and be squandered ; but what we have earned 
by hard labor, and saved under sacrifices, to that we 
cliug, and it clings to us. A kind of teaching which 
resembles this hard labor, by which the child's wits 
are brought to work, will, as may safely be affirmed, 
admit of no such rapid tw recital" as is so frequently 
advocated. 

Nor are, in my opinion, the brilliant pupils (those 



52 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

who show off in a u recitation ") the ones that make 
strong men and women. Nay, I am led to think that 
the apparently dull ones win the laurels over the 
former. Here is an example : I know a gentleman 
who would be considered a rather poor pupil, if he sat 
among school-children, as far as this rapidity is con- 
cerned. Whatever he says, he says with hesitation, 
constantly weighing his sentiments ; his words some- 
times follow each other so slowly, that he resembles 
the miser who turns the penny in his hand several 
times before he gives it away. But see how precise 
he is in his statements ; see the absolute truth in them ; 
see the logic underlying them ! That man is a deeper 
thinker than scores of others ; he has a clearer insight 
into every thing his mind ever approached ; and, what 
is bearing upon the question under discussion, he has 
learned more, by grasping slowly, than a great many 
others who grasp quickly and forget quickly. 

Are we not, in our tendency to rapidity in teaching, 
falling into the same fault that is attributed to the 
whole nation, — fastness, superficiality? Have we not 
too much of that skimming reading, superficial think- 
ing, and blind following of authority, in this country? 
Are we not increasing it? Do not, my dear young- 
lady, regard these questions as conclusive arguments, 
but take them for what they are meant, — inquiries of 
a troubled mind, that wishes for deliverance from the 
painful sensation of hurrying open-eyed into danger. 

It seems to me there is a physical danger in this 
rapidity of conversation, also (I am " at loggerheads " 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 53 

with the term u recitation"), in school. This danger 
consists in wearing out teachers and pupils. I know 
a vigorous, active, and in fact (to use a slang term) 
clashing teacher. Whenever I see her teach, 1 per- 
ceive that her nerves are so active that her finger-tips 
seem ready to dance fandango. May I not attribute 
the weariness and lassitude of the children to the 
fact that they are literally worn out when school is 
out? They cannot do work at home. Is not the 
absence of this mad rapidity the reason why pupils in 
Germany can be called upon to do a liberal share 
of their school- work at home? I merely strew this 
in as a suggestion. Perhaps I am wrong. And now a 
simile. 

A schoolroom with a teacher who strives for, and 
obtains, rapidity in teaching, resembles a hot-house. 
Every plant in it is beautiful to look at ; they all show 
off in dazzling colors of all kinds. If the children 
could remain in that schoolroom, it would be a good 
thing for — the schoolroom. 

But see the plants droop if you place them in 
another ground,' in another air, in other surroundings. 
The brilliancy vanishes, the blossoms and leaves soon 
drop, and the real valuable parts of the plants, the 
stems and branches, the root and germ of life, are 
preserved : they possess what will keep the plant 
alive ; they adapt themselves to the new surroundings ; 
they go through the process of acclimatization. So 
with the pupils. What has become part of their very 
selves, what has taken root in their minds, and what 



54 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

has been slowly gathered by the memory after it went 
through the mill of reason, and comprehension, that — 
But why picture a thing which is self-evident, and not 
disputed? 

NINTH LETTER. 

CONTINUITY OF INSTRUCTION. 

My dear Young Friend, — Permit me to quote 
from your letter: "When addressing our Teachers' 
Institute on the subject of ' Principles of Method,' 
you mentioned one which I failed to understand. 
First, you dwelt upon the necessity of starting with 
sense-perception ; and my own experience furnished 
me with abundant evidence of its truth. Then you 
emphasized that symbols should follow, not precede, 
objects ; and your explanation of this principle was as 
lucid as your illustrations were impressive and con- 
vincing. But your third principle, 4 Instruction must 
be continuous,' remained obscure to me. May I ask 
you to explain it in the ' American Teacher,' a journal 
which offers the benefits of a normal school to us?" 
— Yes, with pleasure. 

The easiest way to satisfy you would be to send 
you to Webster, who defines continuity as being an 
uninterrupted connection, a close union of parts, a 
cohesion. "Law of continuity {Math, and Physics), 
the principle that nothing passes from one state to 
another without passing through all the intermediate 
states." Or, I might interpret by saying that prog- 
ress in school (and progress here implies that of 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 55 

teaching as well as of learning) should be a step-by- 
step movement ; that there should be no break in the 
procedure which might cause disturbance. But that 
would not be sufficient. There is still a vagueness 
about these definitions. 

Let me say, then : By continuity of instruction I 
mean, that the matter of instruction should be given 
in genetic order. I mean that immovable and per- 
petual order established since the creation of the 
universe, which in philosophy is called the law of 
continuity, in virtue of which every thing that is done 
is clone by degrees infinitely small. It seems to be 
the dictate of good sense, that no change is made by 
means of leaps. Natara non operator per salt am 
(nature does not operate in leaps) ; and nothing in 
nature's own unhurried manner of growth can pass 
from one extreme to another, without passing through 
all the intermediate degrees. 

Now, what is true of nature's growth must hold 
good of the mind ; man existing not outside of, but 
within nature, being part of nature. So, then, all 
the items of each branch of study should be so pre- 
sented that they form a genetic order. Furthermore, 
all the different branches of study should have an 
organic connection with each other. And here come 
in the art and skill of the teacher, which no organi- 
zation, be it ever so wise, no text-book, be it ever so 
excellent, can replace. There must be a continuous 
adaptation, in fact, which mere text-book slaves can- 
not practice, even though they understand it. 



56 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Thus, for instance, it would seem wise to choose 
the examples used in grammar from the material 
gained in other studies, as geography, history, arith- 
metic, as well as literature. In other words, we 
should feed our instruction in language from the 
material the child has at hand. In spelling, we should 
use new words which the child meets in all branches 
of study, and not only from a spelling-book, the con- 
tents of which are in no organic connection with the 
child's thought-material. In arithmetic, we should use 
problems taken from the child's home-experience, or 
such as afford an organic connection with the child's 
range of thought. In short, genetic order in each 
study, and organic connection between the different 
studies, will cause continuity of thought, which is a 
condition of mental growth, and therefore a condition 
of success in teaching. 

There certainly can be no doubt as to the desira- 
bility of connecting, logically and organically, all the 
matter of instruction, so that erratic leaping between 
distant points be avoided. But, my friend, that is 
but half the principle. So far, my explanations had 
reference to continuity in the matter of instruction 
only. The continuity of the child's mind is of even 
greater importance. If the child is not prepared to 
take the next step in an otherwise genetic train of 
thought, you will not be able to lift him up to it, since 
he must groio up to it. If he is not prepared to com- 
prehend the next thought, you cannot ingraft it. upon 
his mind, since the mind must develop thought within. 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 57 

A thought, be it indigenous or not, cannot spring 
into life, or enter the child's mind, as a complete, 
finished thing. It necessitates the action of thinking 
not only of this one thought, but of several others 
which lead up to it. If I make any one a present of 
a dollar, which I may have earned by hard toil and 
labor, it requires no toil and labor on his part to take 
it, and enjoy its use. But I cannot give him a thought, 
without making him earn it ; that is, not without re- 
quiring him to go through the effort of thinking like 
myself, which will be impossible if the conditions are 
not the same in both minds. 

The " natural" method of teaching derives its 
name from the fact that it is in harmony with the 
laws of natural growth, expansion, development. 
Continuity of instruction refers to the progressing 
activity of the learner. He is to be led in such a 
manner, that he will not be obliged to make unnatural 
leaps, but will make steps according to the size of 
his own legs ; that is, his progress will be measured 
accurately by the capacit}^ of his comprehension. A 
train of thought which may seem unbroken to an adult 
is, perhaps, not so to a child. How often have I 
heard teachers say, " Can't you see that yet? 
Haven't I made that clear enough yet?" 

You may easily see, that, buying an article for ten 
cents, and intending to make a gain of twenty per 
cent, you would have to sell it for twelve cents. But 
a child will, necessarily, walk slowly before he comes 
to the same conclusion. There are many links be- 



58 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

tween the first elementary idea of percentage, and the 
child's ability to see, as readily as the merchant does, 
what price must be put on the article to make a gain 
of twenty per cent. It cannot be urged too strongly, 
that the principle of continuity has to be applied both 
to the matter of instruction, and to the mind of the 
learner. The different degrees of comprehension 
among the pupils necessitate a constant adaptation 
of the matter to the mind, and in this the teacher's 
skill is tested. 

I know, my young friend, that this is any thing 
but an amusing letter ; but the subject it treats of 
does not admit of humor. A few words on c ' text- 
books " may close this letter. — Genetic and logical 
order is preserved, nay, highly cultivated, in our 
modern text-books ; but while each offers that order 
and development within its own rauge, it rejects, as 
it were, a connection with other branches of study. 
I have in mind the many books on grammar, that 
present the subject cut loose from all other, even 
kindred, subjects, such as composition and literature. 
The same holds good in text-books of geography, 
history, arithmetic, etc. 

Each book illustrates the continuity in the matter 
of instruction, which, of course, is one of its chief 
merits, a conditio sine qua non. But the books, of 
necessity, leave out of consideration the continuitj* 
of the child's mind, and therefore must be handled 
by a teacher who understands the child as well as his 
subject. The text-book must be again degraded to 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 59 

its proper position, to that of a means of instruction. 
It cannot, and should not, replace the teacher, who 
alone can make the proper selection, with reference 
to the actual state of mind of his pupils. He alone 
can know what questions to ask, what matter to 
present, and in what manner to present it. 

The value of text-books has been over-rated. It 
may be unpleasant to hear it, but it must be said. 
In the same proportion in which the text-books grew 
better, the teachers grew worse. I think I can see a 
complete chain of cause and effect in this. Others 
say : In the same proportion in which good but 
poorly paid teachers stepped out of the profession, 
and were replaced by poorly prepared teachers, — in 
the same proportion the text-books, of necessity, 
grew better. I accept this as a more charitable ex- 
planation ; but wish to emphasize again, that the best 
text-book cannot replace the good teacher, because it 
disregards the continuity of the mind by presuppos- 
ing all minds alike. It cannot perform the functions 
of the good teacher, who, by continuous adaptation, 
fits the matter of instruction to the capacity of the 
learner's comprehension. 

TENTH LETTER. 

WHY TAKE THE TROUBLE? 

My despondent Young Friend, — Your letter is 
not as cheerful as your letters usually are. You say, 
you have been disappointed by not being promoted 



60 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

as you had expected, and that you asked yourself why 
you should take the trouble of studying constantly and 
trying to improve yourself, when that improvement has 
no market value? It is a serious case indeed, and 
should be treated with sympathy and encouragement. 
Knowing that you can approach any question calmly 
and impartially, I will ask you to look at this one from 
a higher point of view than your own personal griev- 
ance will permit. Let me quote a passage from a 
recent writer : — 

tu It is an undeniable fact, that upon all domains of 
practical life, as well as in science, division of labor 
has become a necessity. And no one will deny that 
to this division of efforts may be traced back many 
grand performances of our times. But we are also 
aware, that the mechanic often sinks to the level of the 
machine, and becomes a mere mechanical worker, in 
consequence of this division of labor. And so there 
is imminent danger, that in the realm of thought and 
mental labor those who are chiefly occupied with sub- 
ordinate specialties will lose their comprehension of 
the whole, — will not see the great aim of that of which 
their specialty is a mere trifling part." 

The whole embraces the particular, and the latter 
derives its value from the former. The judgment of 
the specialist is easily prejudiced, and becomes warped. 
His line of argument is defective, not unfrequently 
totally faulty ; and the boundaries of his horizon are 
often congruent with the narrow boundaries of his 
native city or village. 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 61 

Nothing is more dangerous, in science, than spinning 
oue's self into a cocoon of small and smaller circles of 
thought, and the miserable cry, u Do not disturb my 
circles!" when one approaches these narrow minds 
with demands of a loftier nature. Science can be kept 
young, can be constantly rejuvenated, if its disciples 
will, by way of inductive reasoning, rise from the par- 
ticular to the general, and go back, by way of deduc- 
tion, from the general to the particular. 

If any one should be conscious of this, it is the 
teacher. If he satisfies himself with doing his duty 
within the four walls of his schoolroom, he will soon 
degrade his art to a mere handicraft. No science de- 
serves to be called " associating science" more than 
our professional science " pedagogy." It is said, that 
he who thinks about education thinks about every 
thing. And if we consider this in the true sense in 
which it is meant, there can be no presumption in it. 

If you,' my young friend, are placed in charge of the 
a-b-c-darians, you should at least know the course of 
study of the whole range of grades following. But at 
whatever stage in the curriculum of a school, fate may 
place you, you should distinctly understand the con- 
nection between school and life, and the relations be- 
tween school and home. You should, at every step, 
know the true end and aim of education ; and be con- 
stantly, aware, that, whatever apparently trifling thing 
you are teaching, it must, like every other part of 
school education, have its bearings upon the future 
destiny of the child. I say this, because it is a world- 



62 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

wide fallacy to think little is necessaiy to teach the 
young budding mind. 

I remind you of the Jesuits, whose schools, though 
built on totally different principles, and aiming at totally 
different objects, were noted for more than one hun- 
dred years for their wonderful results. The Jesuits 
placed young teachers, beginners in the profession, in 
middle and high grades of school, and promoted them 
downward according to their degree of proficienc}' and 
excellence. If this proves any thing, it proves that 
these shrewd, though in more than one regard des- 
picable, men knew the value of elementary education. 
It is an erroneous opinion that needs be fought, 
namely, that any teacher is good enough for the be- 
ginners. The best one is barely good enough for the 
youngest pupils. 

That, however, I trust, 3-011 know full well. What I 
mean to emphasize is, that you should foster an impa- 
tience with yourself, so that you will not sink into that 
self-satisfaction which is the arch-foe of all real prog- 
ress. Practice in the schoolroom is very apt to make 
you self-satisfied ; and if you do not earnestly strive 
forward and upward, you will, in the course of a few 
short years, have a lamentably small horizon of thought 
and vision. This danger is less imminent where you 
are called upon to teach a variety of subjects ; it is 
greatest if you are to be a specialist. 

Now, you do not and can not foresee where fate may 
place you, and what duties may fall to your share ; 
but that much you do or ought to know : that if in a 



OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 63 

few years your teachers and colleagues ask, " What 
has become of her? " the answer comes, " Lost to the 
cause, crushed by the machine, swept away into a for- 
gotten corner, heard of no more," — I say, you know, 
that, if this be said of you, it is j-our own fault. The 
vicissitudes of life may knock you about, fate may deal 
hard with you ; but I implore you to keep fresh within 
your heart and mind the source of rejuvenation, so that 
you be not dead to the profession, — so that no monu- 
ment in the heart of your teachers be erected, bearing 
the inscription, u Sacred to the memory of one who lost 
all that was valuable in her, — to wit, herself." 

Perhaps the hardest struggles, the fiercest battles 
which you will have to go through, will have to be 
fought with yourself. What the poet says is true, 
" Vor die Tugend haben die Gutter den Schweiss ge- 
setzt." (Before virtue, the gods have placed perspi- 
ration.) 

You may have been overlooked unintentionally by 
your authorities, or you may have been retained in your 
present position because you are best fitted for the 
pupils now under your charge. However this may lie, 
do not show resentment, not even disappointment ; and 
you will disarm any evil will on the part of those in 
authority over you, and arouse a sympathy which will 
bear high interest at a future occasion. But best of all, 
keep up your studies, never waver in your devotion to 
duty, and in your hope for better things to come, and 
higher, nobler aims to attain. 

Let me express the hope, that when your life's course 



64 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

runs out, it may be said of yon, that which the poet 
expresses of a great man : ''The warm impulse he gave 
shall resist the empire of decay. He will live among 
us, and live when time is over and worlds have passed 
away. Cold in the dust the perished heart may lie, but 
that which warmed it once shall never die." 



CHAPTER II. 

PEOM THE EXPEKIEtfCE OP A SUPERVISOK. 



CHAPTER II. 

FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 
A PERTINENT QUESTION ANSWERED. 
The following correspondence will explain itself : — 

I. INQUIRY. 

Canton, O., Dec. 11, 1886. 

Dear Sir, — It is a general complaint, that very 
few young men graduate from our public high schools, 
— very few in comparison with the number of young 
ladies who graduate. It is believed that the proportion 
is not above one to four throughout the State of Ohio. 
Demand for explanation is usually met by a statement 
that the worldly circumstances of parents require the 
personal services and earnings of their boys at an early 
age. But the fact is, that very few of the sons of pro- 
fessional men, merchants, and others in favorable and 
easy circumstances, remain to graduate ; while the sons 
of poor men frequently do graduate. Inquiry among 
parents whose boys have left school before graduation 
leads to the belief, that in most cases the discontinu- 
ance has been against the wishes of the parents, and 
notwithstanding their earnest desire that their sons 
should remain and finish the course of study. The 

07 



68 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE DAY. 

worldly circumstances of the parents cannot be relied 
on as the true reason for this condition of affairs. 

Another reason has been given. It is, that boys 
from ten to fourteen years of age have taken an aver- 
sion to school and school-work from the sting of 
ignominy inflicted on them by cruel corporal punish- 
ments administered by their teachers. It is believed 
by some, who have given the subject thought, that 
great harm is being done to our educational system 
by the excessive corporal punishments on boys in 
school ; that the custom is an evil one, and has an 
inherent tendency to abuse ; that by its practice the 
teachers become cruel and heartless, and the boys 
sullen and revengeful ; that it breaks down their self- 
respect, stultifies their budding manhood, and makes 
the school where it is inflicted distasteful, if not hate- 
ful, to them, and they seek every excuse to be free 
from its disgraceful thraldom. 

Has this thought ever occurred to you in connection 
with your school- work? You are aware that, as men, 
we consider a blow a deep indignity. One of the 
marked distinctions, for centuries, between freemen 
and slaves, has been that a freeman may not be beaten 
as a punishment. The more refined and advanced the 
state of civilization, the deeper and more humiliating 
the sense of indignity felt from the infliction of blows. 
May not our boys have feelings and sentiments akin to 
our own? Nay, may it not be that many parents, 
sympathizing with the developing manhood of their 
boys, withdraw them from schools where cruel corporal 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 69 

punishments are tolerated? A desire for education 
may be very strong in the human miud, but it is not 
a moving instinct like the desire to satisfy hunger. 
Wild animals will seek places where food is abundant ; 
but they will shun, if they starve, places where they 
know there is personal danger, though food may there 
be ever so abundant and desirable. Are our boys 
driven from school before graduation by the ignominy, 
or the dread of the ignominy, of personal violence 
at the hands of their teachers ? 

May I hope that this subject will receive your care- 
ful consideration, and that I may have, at the earliest 
practical moment, your views as fuliy as possible? 
Awaiting which, I am 

Very respectfully yours, 

JAMES J. CLARK, 
Member of Canton School Board. 

II. REPLY. 

Hamilton, O., Dec. 15, 18S6. 

Dear Sir, — In answer to your courteous letter 
of inquiiy, I wish to state that the fact, the causes 
of which you desire to investigate, is admitted. 
Though we find that the number of graduates among 
the boys as compared with that of the girls in our city 
is more than one-third, this does not materially alter 
the aspect of the case. I agree with you, that the 
argument concerning the worldly circumstances of 
parents is not satisfactory, inasmuch as it is not up- 



70 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

held by facts in such number as to make them of 
sufficient weight. Again, I agree that the abridgment 
of the courses by voluntary " quituation " is hardly 
ever in accord with the parents' desire. Certainty, 
there must be other reasons for the undue proportion 
of female graduates over male graduates. 

You attribute the above fact to the toleration, or, 
let me say, to the application, of cruel corporal punish- 
ment at the hands of the teachers upon the boys from 
ten to fourteen years of age. You reason well ; and I 
agree that this explains, if not many, certainly some, 
cases of early withdrawal from school ; but permit me 
to say, in all candor, that you are playing on a harp 
with but one string. In the first place, corporal pun- 
ishment is not prevalent enough, so far as my extended 
experience goes, to be so potent a factor in the case 
under discussion. Moreover, boys who manage to get 
cruelly beaten (I am speaking advisedly, and, as I 
believe, with the proper choice of terms) are of a type 
who generally never enter a high school, and certainly 
never graduate. But, sir, your argument as to the 
degrading influence of corporal punishment, both upon 
pupils and teachers, is heartily commended. 

Personally, and in my official capacity, I regard only 
two offences properly punishable by corporal punish- 
ment. According to the just rule, that punishment 
should be in strict accordance with the offence, I be- 
lieve corporal punishment in place, (1) where a flagrant 
case of cruelty, either to animals or human beings, 
is to be dealt with, because bodily pain is the proper 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 71 

remedy in that case ; and (2) in the case of open and 
violent resistance to authority, for we must not forget 
that the school is not a republic, and that the teacher 
is to be queen of the hive or governor of the class. 
For every other offence, be it against truth, order, 
honesty, decency, or whatever else, corporal punish- 
ment is improper. Moreover, since it acts like opium, 
if indulged in a few times, causing a craving for more, 
teachers become accustomed to it, and niake its appli- 
cation a habit. 

Whether my limitations of corporal punishment, as 
stated, find approval or not, this will certainly be 
granted by every right-thinking person : namely, that, 
the less of corporal punishment that is inflicted, the 
higher will be the type of the school, morally and 
intellectually ; also, that in some cases, as you most 
convincingly state it, boys are driven from school before 
graduation by the ignominy of personal violence at the 
hands of the teacher, and even by the dread of such 
ignominy. 

Permit me to recapitulate. First, I grant, that, in 
a few cases, the worldly circumstances cause an early 
withdrawal of the boys from school ; second, that, in 
a greater number of cases, the application of corporal 
punishment has the same effect. But that does not 
adequately explain the great falling-off in the number 
of boj's who try to acquire a higher education. The 
following causes will, in my judgment, explain the 
fact under discussion, better than the two contained 
in your letter of inquiry. 



72 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

I. I remind you, clear sir, of the fact that in this 
country manifold opportunities are offered to boys at 
an early age, to earn, if not a livelihood, certainly 
a considerable amount of pocket-money. This is a 
temptation, which is not held out in many European 
countries, — a temptation to which many a tolerably 
good boy in this country succumbs. 

II. I remind you of this other fact, — that the too 
prevalent worship of the self-made man, in this coun- 
try, deplorable though it be, tempts the boj T to despise, 
as his father possibly may, systematic higher educa- 
tion, and to try to carve out his own future without 
it. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, such a boy 
fails and speedily sinks to the bottom ; never reaches 
the fame of the great self-made man who was his 
ideal, and is finally found on a level with men of 
whom thirteen do not even make a dozen. But the 
fact remains, that it is a great temptation. College- 
bred men are too often quoted below par, in this 
country. The river cannot rise higher than its source. 
Why should the boy think higher education necessary, 
or even desirable, when at the fireside, in the press, 
from the pulpit or the lecture-rostrum, on the stump, 
at the bar, — in fact, everywhere, — the fame of the 
self-made man is proclaimed? 

III. Permit me to call your attention to a third 
fact, not always known, and where known not infre- 
quently denied, for reasons too obvious to mention. 
It is this : that the course of study, the methods of 
teaching, and the mode of training, in the higher 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 73 

grades of the grammar school, as well as in the high 
schools, are designed for, and shaped according to, 
the needs and wants of the girls, and not the hoys. 
While I grant, readily and cheerfully, that the girls 
have the right to the same amount of education that 
the boys claim, and which it is oar solemn duty to 
grant to them, I claim, most emphatically that the 
two sexes from twelve years of age and upward need 
a different training. I cannot go into details, but I 
should covet an opportunity to do so. Suffice it to 
say, that we measure the steps in our instruction, and 
the methods of our procedure, by the peculiar combina- 
tion of faculties in the girls, just as a father measures 
his steps by those of his child whom he takes out 
walking. There is a strong desire in the average boy 
for exertion and application of his powers, which is 
not complied with, at this age, in the schools as they 
now are. He is repressed, and made to progress as 
the girls do. He sits side by side with them ; they 
are held up to him as examples, whose frailty he, in 
his physical robust nature, despises. Moreover, in 
many cases he has not even a male example in his 
teacher. If he is a weak character, he becomes 
effeminate. If he is a strong character, he is soon 
filled with disgust, and quits school to find a better 
opportunity for the exertion of those powers which 
find no satisfaction in a girls' school. I know, dear 
sir, this will be considered rank heresy among many 
educational leaders in this country ; but it is my con- 
viction, and I have the courage of my conviction to 



74 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

utter it. Do not be deceived by the flimsy argument 
that the girls are making more rapid progress than the 
boys. They are merely passive recipients of knowl- 
edge ; while a boy can argue himself into knowledge, 
when he has a male teacher who is ready to indulge 
him in that. The very presence of girls, however, 
debars him from such a course in a girls' school, for 
that is what most of our high schools are. Where 
boys and girls are separated in different buildings, 
usually a greater number of bo} T s graduate annually. 
This confirms the position just taken. 

IV. As I stated above, the undue proportion of 
female teachers Over male teachers is to be counted 
in when we look for the early withdrawal from school 
on the part of the boys. Boys at the critical age of 
fourteen to eighteen must have examples of manliness, 
of man's thoughts, of man's way of acting, of man's 
motives, of man's will-power and general conduct ; 
and, instinctively feeling this, they seek it outside of 
school. But I have sufficiently emphasized this under 
the last head, and will not dwell upon it further. 

Pardon the length of this reply ; but of what the 
heart is full, the mouth floweth over. 

Yours very respectfully, 

L. R. KLEMM, 

Supt. of Public Schools. 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 75 
THE MEDICAL PRACTICE OF A TEACHER. 

I. A WEAK SPELLER. 

A superintendent, or, for that matter, every 
teacher, is more or less a physician of diseased 
minds, and ought to be able to give an account of 
cures he has effected, or a diagnosis of cases he has 
treated. In the following series of short articles, I 
will endeavor to describe a few cases which came 
under my observation, and which, as I cannot but say 
with pride, are in a fair way to recover even if not 
entirely cured. 

Miss A. — "There is a boy among my pupils who 
is an excellent arithmetician, gets up good lessons in 
geography and history, is alive to the niceties of 
expression, that is, is careful in the selection of his 
words, and construes his sentences well ; but is an 
indifferent reader, and a most wretched, abominable 
speller. What do you think, Mr. K., ought to be 
done in this case ? ' ' 

What remedies have you tried ? 

Miss A. — "I have pinned him down to his spell- 
ing-book till his eyes began to wander. I have 
appealed to his sense of duty, which is very keen ; 
but I saw that made matters worse, because it over- 
taxed his limited ability. Then I appealed to his 
ambition ; which proved to be perfect poison, for now 
the boy would try to master long strings of words, and 



76 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE BAY. 

thereby weaken his memory more than ever. Can 
•you suggest any thing better? " 

I suspect, my clear Miss A., that you have not 
inquired iuto the causes of this disease ; and I am 
sure, had you done so, you would have employed a 
totally different mode of treatment. Can you imagine 
the cause? 

Miss A. — "No, I haven't the most remote idea, 
unless it be want of attention or application at a 
former stage of his school career." 

No, I think we shall have to look elsewhere for the 
cause. Let me ask you to show him a rose-leaf or 
a clover-leaf, and then tell him to sketch it. Write a 
single word, such as u breakfast," on the board; let 
him see it, and then observe how correctly or incor- 
rectly he reproduces it from memory. Try him also 
in describing some object accurately. Please try 
these things first, and tell me to-morrow the result 
of your observations. 

(Next day.) Miss A. — " Why, he could not sketch 
the leaf, nor reproduce the word correctly, nor, in fact, 
could he describe a simple thing with any degree of 
accuracy." 

And what do you infer from these facts? 

Miss A. — "I should say his sense of form is 
wof ully neglected." 

Very good, my dear young lady. That is the whole 
argument in a nutshell. Now 2:0 further : Having no 
sense of form, he cannot have a memory for forms, 
just as little as a person who never in his life heard 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 11 

a sound can have a memory for sounds. He has a 
memory for numbers and their relations, for historical, 
geographical, and other facts - ; but his form-sense is 
weak. Every word has its physiognomy, and spelling 
should therefore be learned by means of the sense of 
sight chiefl}*. 

Now for the remedy. Feed him on a diet of one, 
or, at best, a few words, for a few days ; use easy, 
common words, such as occur in his own vocabulary, 
and let him see them on the board, on paper, in print, 
in writing, etc. Set him to finding them ten times in 
his reader, and to copying them till he is perfectly 
familiar with them. Make him analyze, that is, split 
the words orally, write them from dictation, and use 
them in sentences of his own. 

Do this with a very limited number of words : in 
short, give him babies' diet, till his form-sense, and 
memory for word-pictures, are sufficiently strong to 
digest more. At the beginning, it may be painfully 
wearisome to you and to the boy, but the success 
which is sure to follow your endeavors will strengthen 
you both. You will find, also, that he improves in 
reading. Constant repetition, of course, is necessaiy 
for some time, until the boy has acquired the habit of 
;t making personal acquaintance " with words. 

Somewhere in the earlier stages of his school-life 
his perception of word-forms was neglected, and left 
without stimulus ; or, perhaps, it was overworked, and 
thereby weakened. 

Well, the boy, according to latest reports, is on the 



78 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

way to recovery. He draws well now, and his com- 
positions are, if not faultless, certainly fair specimens 
of orthography for a pupil of his age. 

IT. THE RESCUE OF A DUNCE. 

The following sketch may show that the teacher 
can undo much mischief caused by wrong treatment 
or want of natural aptitude. 

Miss C. — " Well, Hugo is a dunce, if ever there 
was one ! He is wretched in every branch of study, 
sits there like a log, and apparently has no interest 
in any thing going on in school. His progress is of 
the slowest kind, and I suspect he was sent to my 
room because he was too old to stay in Miss W.'s 
room any longer. I wish you would suggest a remedy 
in this case, Mr. K." 

What are his home surroundings? 

Miss C. — " They are not elevating, to say the least. 
I know from hearsay, that Hugo is pushed and knocked 
about, scolded constantly, and even whipped merci- 
lessly, by parents who do not understand the boy's 
absolute want of perception." 

Are you sure, Miss C, that the boy's apathy is 
the result of defective perceptive faculty? 

Miss C. — "I am, so far as it relates to school 
work. I can amuse him roj'ally by giving pictures 
into his hands. I even saw him smile over a simple 
outline sketch of a humorous scene. Come to my 
room, and watch him a while, will you?" 

I did, giving instructions to the teacher not to 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 79 

notice him or me. I seated myself near Hugo, took 
a slate and pencil, and began to draw outline sketches 
of things which might amuse him. Soon I saw him 
imitating me, and that with a dexterity and artistic 
skill which fairly took my breath away. I smiled at 
him encouragingly, entered into a whispered conversa- 
tion with him concerning the pictures he drew, induced 
him to show me my mistakes in drawing, which he 
did readily and without assumption. Seeing in me a 
" hail fellow well met," he warmed and opened up his 
soul to me as he had perhaps never done in his life. 

There was a rich' and warm-hearted life under a 
crust of apparent apathy ; and I was determined to 
awaken it, and reconcile it with its surroundings. We 
two adjourned to my office ; and for a whole hour he 
conversed freely with me, showing no reserve, after 
seeing that I meant well. After reporting to Miss C. 
the substance and character of our conversation, she 
blanched, and cried out from the bottom of her 
troubled heart, "Have I misjudged the boy? Lord for- 
give me if I have ! " (Bless her impulsive heart !) 

Miss C. and myself agreed upon a plan for action 
with regard to the dunce, as Hugo had been called by 
everybody. For a number of weeks, we gave him the 
privilege of coming to the office whenever he felt like 
doing so. We gave him work to do, yes, but made 
all his work have relation to drawing. All his arith- 
metic was drawing and sketching, till slowly, but by 
perceptible degrees, his interest in other things was 
awakened. 



80 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

One episode of his cure is very vividly imprinted in 
my memory. Hugo showed a decided dislike to read- 
ing. I argued with him, sa}ing that some day, when 
he would be a great artist, he would wish to read what 
people said about him ; he would want to read the 
criticisms made upon his work in the journals. "Well, 
queer as it may seem, and questionable as the incen- 
tive may have been from a moral point of view, it is 
a fact, that from that day the boy bent all his energy 
upon reading, till after a few months he read as 
fluently as most of his schoolmates who were con- 
sidered bright boys when he was " the dunce." 

One thing I greatly disliked in him ; namely, the 
way he revenged himself frequently. When other 
boys would use their fists freely, Hugo would rapidly 
draw a caricature of the person who he thought had 
intended to wrong him. Some of these caricatures are 
still in my possession, and I cannot but laugh when 
I come across them. There was such a fine vein of 
humor exhibited in these pictures, that I became easily 
reconciled with his mode of revenge. The boys soon 
feared Hugo's crayon more than they did his fists, 
and they " left him severely alone," or at least treated 
him gingerly, " right side up with care." 

To cut a long story short, the boy is now a very 
creditable pupil, though by no means a shining light 
in scholarly attainments ; he is fairly equipped for 

higher grades ; and if in future years Hugo 

should become a great painter, which is not at al) 
impossible, some of his schoolmates may be proud 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 81 

« 
of having gone to school with him. Hugo has a very 

soft spot in his heart for Miss C. and myself, and I 

am happy over it. 

III. a "bad" boy in arithmetic. 

In the following article, another of the weaknesses 
frequently found among pupils is treated. 

Miss B. — " I have a good mind to shake 3 7 ou, Fred ! 
Don't you see that you made one error after another in 
the solution of this problem ? You ought to be ashamed 
of yourself, to be so L bad ' in arithmetic, and good 
in every thing else." 

I happened to hear this by no means uncommon 
speech, and became painfully aware of the fact that 
Fred, whom I had come to praise for his excellent 
work in map-drawing, needed a little extra attention. 
I inquired of the teacher afterward the particulars of 
the case. Here is her statement : — 

Miss B. — "Well, Mr. K., I love that boy as the 
apple of my eye. You need not be astonished ; I 
repeat, I love him. But 1 fear he is making use of 
my preference for him. There is no reason why he 
should be so slovenly in his work in arithmetic. He. is 
not too stupid to reason out a problem, — no, that isn't 
it, — but he is negligent in the execution. Don't you 
think a dose of ' heroic treatment ' might do him some 
good? Only don't make me give it to him, for I 
can't." 

Let us look into the symptoms before we prescribe 
the remedy. What makes him so brilliant in history 



82 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

and geography? What, do you think, is the reason of 
his spirited reading, or of his meritorious efforts in 
composition ? 

Miss B. — "Well, I suspect he has more talent in 
those directions." 

Likely ; but that would scarcely account for his 
slovenliness in figuring, for you say yourself he is not 
stupid in reasoning out a problem. And then, look at 
his work in map-drawing ; see with what loving accu- 
racy he has treated the difficult map of Europe. There 
is not a slovenly line on that whole map. Don't you 
think it is in another direction where we'll have to look 
for his evident carelessness in dealing with numbers ? 

Miss B. — u Indeed, you lead me to suspect that it 
is not so much want of talent as want of interest." 

Very good ; I believe you are right. Interest, 3^011 
know, acts upon the learner as sunshine and moisture 
do upon the germs in the ground. Cannot we agree 
upon a remedy which will arouse that interest? Sup- 
pose that you try this : link the intense interest he 
manifests in geography and other branches, with arith- 
metic, by giving him problems containing geographical, 
historical, or statistical dates, or any thing that touches 
those fields of knowledge in which he is interested. 
Tell him that much depends upon accuracy in cipher- 
ing:. I should be much astonished if he would not be 
very careful in the execution of his work. At least, 
let us try his preferences as levers. 

Miss B. — " I verily believe that that will. bring him 
around sooner than a shaking will." 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 83 

And while we are about it, my friend, don't say a 
pupil is bad in this or t-hat study : say he is weak. 
Apply the word " badness " to cases of immorality. A 
disobedient, a cruel,' or an untruthful child may be 
called a bad child ; but a poor reader, a faulty speller, 
or an inaccurate arithmetician may be a very good 
child in point of morals. 

Miss B. took my words good-naturedly. The boy 
in question is now one of the most accurate and fault- 
less arithmeticians in his class, a proof of the wonder- 
ful influence interest manifests, be that interest in the 
teacher, or matter of instruction. 

IV. A BOY "LIKE KASPAR HAUSER." 

Miss D. — "Oh, Mr. K., I have a boy in my class 
who is a veritable Kaspar Hauser * when it comes to 
composition work. He hasn't an idea. Please to look 
over this paper." 

I did. This was the production. "A sunrise. The 
sun rises and sets. I have often seen him set, but 
011I3* once rise. I guess I must have been too sleepy 
to get up early enough. Since it is too loug ago since 
I saw the sun rise, I cannot say an} T thing of how it 
looked, or whether it looks any different from the set- 
ting sun." Well, the spelling and penmanship are all 
right ; that is one redeeming feature. 

1 We must request the reader to consult a history of educatiou, to learn 
the purport of this expression. It will pay him well. Or, let him read 
Gutzkow's romance, "The Sous of Pestalozzi," in which Kaspar Hauser 
plays a leading part. 



84 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Miss D. — " Yes, I have no fault to find there ; but 
think ! this is a boy of fourteen years of age, and he is 
not able to say any thing of " — 

What he does not know. Pardon me for the inter- 
ruption ; but, I should think, you set him too hard a 
task. Suppose, Miss D., I should ask you to write a 
composition on the "Trekshnit 1 as a means of trans- 
portation in Holland," what would you say? 

Miss D. — "I 'am sure I should say, 'I can't do 
it,' never having seen a — what do you call it? — 
and not knowing whether it is a cart, a boat, or a 
balloon." 

Why, yes, that is hitting the nail on the head. You 
expected the boy to say something of the tranquillity 
of the early morning, of dawn, of the first faint glim- 
mer of light on the eastern horizon, of the awakening 
skylark, of the first brilliant rays shooting up to the 
zenith, etc., ad nauseam; and forgot that he knew 
nothing of these phenomena. An old German cook- 
book contains a curious recipe which begins: " In 
order to make Hasenpfeffer (ragout of rabbit), you 
must first catch your rabbit, then," etc. That's it pre- 
cisely ! The most necessary ingredient of a composi- 
tion is a thought to work out. Where that is wanting, 
no composition can be made ; though sauces and dips 
of all kinds may be employed, such a dish will remain 
without substance. A child who has something to say 
will sa} r it. A child of experience and thoughts will 

1 Drag-boat. For explanation of this, see Oliver Optic's Dikes and 
Ditches, p. 333. 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 85 

give utterance to them, though his linguistic talent be 
limited. So please furnish the rabbit. 

Dr. Ed. Feldner, a member of the Saxon parliament 
during the German rebellion of 1848 (often proudly 
termed "the revolution of '48"), and afterward 
principal of a well-reputed seminary at Detroit, Mich., 
once told me the following instructive incident of 
his life, which I will here reproduce for the benefit 
of young teachers : — 

"I was a boy fifteen years of age, and had won 
an enviable rank in school; only one thing fairly 
upset me. Once a month a subject for composition 
was given out, such as ' Thoughts of an Awakening 
Skylark,' or some such nonsensical trash. My 
report showed good marks in every thing, even in 
grammar; but in composition it said 'very poor.' 
My excellent father must have felt the cause of my 
failing in this particular, and when vacation began 
he gave me permission to make an excursion which 
might last several weeks. He furnished me with 
money, mapped out a route through the so-called 
Saxon Switzerland, and gave me a list of places at 
which I might stop over night. 

t; I was happy beyond expression, and readily 
promised to write as often as I felt like it. Oh, the 
bliss I enjoyed on that three-weeks' trip is still vividly 
imprinted upon the tablet of my memory ! I wrote 
home almost daily, giving an accurate account of what 
I had seen, with whom I had fallen in on the way, 
what they had said, what thoughts had been awakened 



86 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

in my mind at the sight of this or that phenomenon 
or scenery. I did this in the evening, before going to 
bed. One whole letter I filled with a vivid description 
of a combat I had with a vicious dog when I ascended 
to a hayloft which was to be my bedchamber that 
night. 

u When I returned home, my father told me, with a 
touch of pride, ' Edward, I am glad you have im- 
proved in composition- writing.' — ' Now don't,' said I, 
' you know I hate compositions.' — ' No, no, my boy ; 
I mean what I say : every one of your letters is a 
capital composition, and deserves a high mark. I 
sent your letters to Professor W., and convinced him 
that you are any thing but a dunce in composition- 
writing. He acknowledged to me that he had mis- 
judged you.' " 

If this story has any moral, it is : First catch the 
rabbit. 

DISCIPLINE. — A REFORMATORY CLASS. 

[From Annual Report to the Board of Education of Hamilton, 0.\ 

As a general thing, the discipline in the schools of 
smaller towns and villages is vastly better than in the 
schools of large cities. I was very pleasantly sur- 
prised when I came here, and noticed the well-man- 
nered children, the pleasant, genial smile they had 
for their teachers, and the politeness they showed me 
wherever they met me. The order in the different 
schoolrooms and houses varies a little, as a matter 
of course, but is generally good without being oppres- 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 87 

sive. If we inquire into the frequency of corporal 
punishment, and observe minutely, we see that very 
few cases of such punishment are found necessary. 
When it is resorted to, it is almost invariably adminis- 
tered to the same pupils. Teachers should understand 
that a request cheerfully uttered is alwa} T s better than 
a stern command ; and as a rule you will find, wherever 
and whenever you enter a schoolroom, that a cheerful 
teacher has a cheerful set of children busily at work or 
attentively listening. The exceptions to this are but 
few. 

I abhor the death-like silence that is considered a 
result of good discipline in many schools all over the 
country. Life is motion, not rest. For this reason 
people who believe that in a school absolute quietude 
should reign, — a quietude in which a pin might be 
heard falling, — such people may find many a school 
sadly deficient in "discipline." People of common- 
sense, who know that life is motion, and that motion 
always causes some noise, will be well satisfied with 
what we consider good discipline. Col. Parker, of 
Quincy fame, once heard a guest whom he had con- 
ducted through his schools, remark, " But your 
classes are rather noisy." — "Of course," he replied : 
" our schools are work-shops, not funerals. Work 
alwa} T s implies noise." 

But while we have reason to be satisfied with the 
general order and discipline, and while we rejoice over 
the confidence and fidelity exhibited by the citizens of 
Hamilton toward our public schools, we must not be 



88 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

blind to a fact which makes itself felt more and more 
disagreeably, as the school system grows. By far the 
greater majority of children come from homes in which 
the authority of the teacher is acknowledged and 
upheld. Only in rare cases I find a clashing of au- 
thority, as it were ; not between teacher and parents, 
for in these cases the parents have lost all authority, 
but between the boys and the rules of the schools. 

There is a small number of boys in our schools, 
and many outside of them, running the streets, who 
are unsafe companions for other children. I have 
investigated several cases by consulting the teachers 
and the parents. In every case, I found the reason 
of their bad conduct, in want of proper home-training ; 
in weak or indulgent parents, who cannot govern the 
domineering habits and violent tempers of their chil- 
dren. These boys defy the rules and regulations of 
school, come or stay away as it pleases them, and 
generally behave as though they were the lords of the 
realm. It cannot be denied, that the street and home 
training of some boys is in crime, rather than in 
virtue ; filthiness, rather than purity ; and parents have 
a right to demand of the authorities who assume the 
education of their children, that they be shielded 
from the influence of such as these. 

Now, the rules of the Board of Education concerning 
such black sheep are very well defined. We may pun- 
ish these boys corporally ; but it is always degrading 
the teacher and his school if corporal punishment is 
resorted to, and it is at best but a questionable 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 89 

remedy. Or, we may, if punishment is of no avail, 
expel them. However, to expel them from school, 
and turn them upon the street, would be the worst 
remedy that could be conceived of. It would be 
simplyswelling the number of dangerous elements in 
the community, whose decrease is one of the mission- 
ary objects of the public schools. Some of these 
boys, if not all, ought to be in the house of refuge, 
or on the Reform Farm ; but commitment to these 
institutions is beyond the jurisdiction of the school 
authorities. . 

The only effectual remedy for cleansing our schools of 
these dangerous elements, and yet keeping them under 
our charge, is the establishment of an ungraded class, 
presided over by a teacher who is a strong disciplina- 
rian, and who can exert a moral influence over the boys 
which will last beyond the school hours. To this class 
the boys might be committed temporarily, until they 
show such marked improvement that they give 
assurance of better conduct in future, and may be 
re-admitted to the ranks of their former associates. 

One of the foremost educators of the country 
recommended the establishment of such a school in 
1875. He then said, "This (reformatory) class 
should bear a title as little obnoxious as possible ; 
but it should be designed for those whose influence is 
found to be pernicious to their associates, and who are 
incorrigible by those means of discipline which seem 
to be used in the schools at large. Its principal 
purpose is to guard the masses of children under the 



90 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

care of the Board, from daily contact, in the class-room 
and on the pla^ -ground, with children whose example 
tends to corrupt eveiy one about them ; to protect the 
young and the weak from those whose domineering 
habits or violent tempers make them unsafe compan- 
ions." 

It is often stated, and with just pride too, that the 
public schools are the crucible within which all the 
various nationalities of the community are fused into 
one homogeneous mass, alike in patriotic devotion and 
civil virtue. It is also stated, that the school is a 
state in miniature. If so, it is our solemn duty to 
shield the mass of children of law-abiding, virtuous 
parents, from contamination with vicious characters, 
just as the state authorities do, who single out crim- 
inals for the protection of societ}'. Our rules here 
keep children out of school who are likely to bring 
with them, from home, the germs of a contagious 
disease. Why, then, should we be obliged to admit, 
among the mass of children, so-called moral lepers? 

"We have reason to think that such tin ungraded 
class here in Hamilton will have about twenty to 
twenty-five pupils. No girl has ever been found to 
deserve commitment to such a reformatoiy. Permit 
me, gentlemen of the Board, to submit to your consid- 
eration the adoption of the following rules, which are 
in force in the schools of Cleveland : — 

I. Conditions of Admission. — Whenever, on due in- 
quiry and investigation, it shall appear to the principal 
of a school building, that the attendance of an}' pupil, 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 91 

either by reason of incorrigibility or immoral conduct, 
is pernicious to the interest of the school of which he is 
a member, the principal shall refer the case in full to 
the superintendent, stating the reasons which may have 
led him to that conclusion ; and at the same time he 
shall notif} T the parents of said reference to the super- 
intendent. Thereupon the superintendent may, after 
a conference with the parents, transfer the said pupil 
to the "ungraded school;" but if objection to the 
transfer be made, on the part of the parent, the super- 
intendent shall suspend the pupil. 

II. Return to Graded School. — On sufficient evi- 
dence of good conduct, the superintendent may return 
a pupil thus assigned to the " ungraded school," back 
to the school from which he came, but not during the 
term in which he was sent. 

III. Studies. — The studies in this school shall, so 
far as the number of classes will permit, be the same 
as are required by the course of study prescribed for 
the corresponding grades of the intermediate and 
primary departments ; provided, that the branches 
essential to classification be not neglected. In all other 
particulars this school shall be governed by the rules 
as prescribed for the other schools of this city. 

SCEXES FROM SCHOOL-LIFE. 

" I am the maddest man you ever saw," said a man 
who came with a big club in his hand into my office one 
clay. — "Oh, no, sir, you arc by no means the mad- 
dest," said I ; k> I have seen madder men than you are. 



92 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

You don't look like a brute, you have all the airs of a 
gentleman. But I suppose something very aggravating 
has happened, and that you seek my assistance." — 
" Then you are the superintendent, are you ? " — " Yes, 
sir : be seated, and tell me what I can do for you." — 
"Well, the thing is this. The principal of this build- 
ing whipped my boy, and I have pretty good reasons 
to think my boy did not deserve it." I held an in- 
vestigation instantly ; and very reliable testimony was 
brought out, revealing the fact that the boy had re- 
ceived his punishment for just cause. I need not 
reiterate the case here ; suffice it to say, that when I 
had dismissed the boys to their different rooms, and 
was alone with the father, he jumped up, shook my 
hand, and again said, " Sir, I am the maddest man you 
ever saw ; but while first I was mad at the teacher, now 
I am mad at my boy. He will catch it when he gets 
home." 

" Just look over this note, if you please," said Miss 
C, the other day. It was a fearfully coarse note, both 
in style and substance, of an equally coarse woman. 
Her boy had been spoken to about his fighting propen- 
sities, his use of slang, his cursing, and general med- 
dlesomeness. ' w How did you dispose of the case?" 
was my question. "Well, this being the third time 
punishment seemed necessary, I asked the mother to 
come to your office at this hour. I think you will find 
her up-stairs." I did find her there. Her appearance 
was that of a brutal, coarse nature, who had fire and 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPEBVISOB. 93 

brimstone in her eyes. At my entrance she arose, put 
her arms akimbo, and addressed me as follows: "I 
want you to understand, Mr, Superintendent, that nry 
boy is not a bad boy ; he never tells a lie, and is 
as gentle as a lamb, and I don't understand why the 
teacher should pick at my boy all the time." I quietly 
interrogated her concerning the boy's playmates, and 
then sent for a number of them. Very few questions 
sufficed to establish the guilt of the boy in question 
indisputably. The teacher testified again, in presence 
of the mother, how hatefully the boy acted when he 
found that he could not have his own way. Then the 
ire of the mother got the better of her, and she began 
to abuse the teacher. I put a stop to that at once, 
asked the teacher kindly to withdraw, and I would set- 
tle the matter. Now I gave the mother to understand 
that if the boy should persist in his ugly behavior I 
would have him arrested, and brought before his honor 
the mayor, and I should move that he be sent to the 
Reform Farm. 

This quieted the woman wonderfully and quickly. 
She was, like every bully, at heart a coward. She soon 
began to cry, admitted the boy's badness, and promised 
to keep an eye on him in the future. 

She was a small, not pretty, but highly intelligent 
young teacher, who, not by a freak of nature, but by 
the absolute confidence of her superiors, had been as- 
signed to a C intermediate school. Among her pupils, 
was one who proved in every way a black sheep. He 



94 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

came from what was known as a highly cultured family, 
which in this case meant a very conceited family. The 
father was a physician. One day this Dr. X. came to 
the schoolhouse, at once went to the room of the 
teacher in question, knocked, and asked to say a word 
to her in the corridor. She came out, and stood before 
this tall man with expectation in her face. This is the 
conversation that took place. "Miss G., I under- 
stand that you charge my boy with having prevaricated. 
How can you dare to do that? " — "I never said he 
prevaricated. I am sure I did not use that word, sir." 
— " Do you meau to say that }-ou did not accuse him 
of prevarication? " — "■ That is exactly what I mean." 
— ' l What did you say, then ? ' ' And this small, young, 
inexperienced woman of strong character looked up 
with her fearless steel-blue eyes, like a lion-tamer, 
straight into his enraged countenance, and said, u I did 
say he lied, and I can prove that he did." Not another 
word was said. Dr. X. turned, and left her and the 
house. 

My observations. — A boy of twelve years, healthy, 
strong, fine head, intelligent but defiant looks, regular 
though dirty face, frequently distorted by disdainful, 
ugly smiles, dilapidated appearance, clothes torn though 
of good material. Teacher's report. — Boy played tru- 
ant thirteen half days and ten whole days ; brings 
excuses from his mother which are evidently untrue, — 
such as, sore foot, when the boy played at the corners 
all day long ; sprained hand, when no sign of any such 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 95 

casualty can be found, nay, when the boy himself is 
unable to state which hand was sprained ; and other like 
statements. Boy is not reliable, neither in word nor 
action ; is disobedient', unwilling to study or pay atten- 
tion. His father sometimes iu a fit of indignation 
lashes him with a cowhide till he (the father) is ex- 
hausted. Whipping in school is of no use ; boy calls 
it tickling. He demoralizes my school. Mr. Klemm, 
what shall I do with him ? 

A respectable-looking but emaciated woman with 
receding chin, tears in her eyes, pushes a boy into my 
office, saying, "There, mister, I have brought him. 
He won't mind me. What shall I do? He won't go 
to school. Can't you whip him, and make a good boy 
of him?" Boy. — " There, old woman, don't tell a 
pack o' lies about me, or I won't stay." Inquiry soon 
revealed the fact that the boy had been the terror of 
his school, had demoralized it till he had to be expelled. 
The teachers protested when they saw him. 

This is the shady side of school-life. 



PR OFESSIONA L S UPER VISION. 

A superintendent in the West has a rather charac- 
teristic way of exercising criticism upon the work of 
his teachers. He visits a schoolroom, sits down in ah 
unfrequented corner, and carefully observes what is 
going on. When he leaves he makes a pleasant re- 



96 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

mark to the teacher, and, if the occasion seems to call 
for it, also to the pupils. Then he retires to his office, 
and fills out a blank like the one attached below, keeps 
this on record, and sends an exact copy to the teacher, 
— in closed envelope, of course. She there has it, 
black on white, what he thinks of her work, of her 
manner of teaching and managing. If she takes 
exception to any of the superintendent's remarks, she 
meets him at his office, and then and there the superin- 
tendent holds a " teacher's meeting " (a private one) ; 
that is to say, makes her understand what her mistakes 
are, by applying the test of principles. 

I full well understand that this method of criticising 
can be perverted into the most unpleasant fault-finding, 
just as every other good method can be misapplied. 
The method is all right ; it is only the manner of apply- 
ing it which may or may not make the thing successful. 
If the teachers know that their superior officer means 
well, that he is kind-hearted, and intends this for their 
own advantage as well as for that of the schools, they 
will receive this written criticism in the spirit in which 
it is offered. Not that he answers every query found 
below as often as he makes a visit. No : sometimes 
he finds it desirable to call the teacher's attention to 
a very weak spot in her management or mode of teach- 
ing, and therefore dwells on this point, leaving the 
other questions blank. 

A teacher gets, in the course of a year, about a 
dozen of these blanks, partly or entirely filled out by 
the superintendent, and can mark, pretty accurately, 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 97 

whether she is gaining in skill of teaching and mana- 
ging, or not. The questions attached below are not 
the same as last year. He changes them from time to 
time, introducing a new feature now and then, drop- 
ping other points which have found their way into the 
comprehension of his corps of teachers, "with the im- 
pressibility of truth," as Friend Hailmann says. 

I offer these questions to my colleagues, because 
they seem to me in the highest degree suggestive. 
Though it may readily be guessed who the superintend- 
ent in question is, it is not desirable to publish his 
name. He is a modest man, and might feel embar- 
rassed if he sees his name in print. 



COPY OF THE BLANK. 
-Ward, Grade, - Teacher. 

Observations made by the Superintendent 188.. 



QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 

1. Did the teacher possess the undivided attention 

of li pupils ? 

2. Was h instruction interesting enough to secure 

attention ? 

3. Was it objective ? did illustrate it sufficiently ? 

4. Were the teachers statements unquestionable ? 

5. Did they follow each other in logical order ? 

6. Was the instruction clear and comprehensible to 

all? 

7. Had it practical bearings upon actual conditions of 

life? 

8. Did it seem to promise lasting results ? 

9. Was the pupil's self-activity called into play ? 



98 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 

10. Was the teacher's manner of questioning correct ? 

11. Did show proper regard to the pupil's indi- 

viduality ? 

12. Was the object of the lesson secured by practical 

application ? 

13. Did the teacher seem to have consulted the course 

of study ? 

14. Did seem to have prepared h self for the 

lesson ? 

15. Did aid the pupils in the development of new- 

ideas ? 

16. Did guide the children in discovering their 



errors 



17. Did the pupils speak in complete sentences ? 

18. Did it seem as if the teacher asked the brighter 

pupils only ? 

19. Was the teacher too talkative ? 

20. Were mistakes in pronunciation and emphasis left 

uncorrected ? 

21. Did the teacher always address h questions to 

the whole class ? 

22. Did indulge in repeating the pupil's answer ? 

23. Did say or do any thing which the pupils 

might have said or done themselves ? 

24. Was the teacher's writing on the board commend- 

able ? 

25. Did the class seem to make progress in their 

studies ? 

26. In what branch of study did the class seem to be 

weak? 

27. Was order maintained by harsh treatment ? 

28. Did the teacher watch the class steadily ? 

29. Did change h position unnecessarily ? 

30. Did ignore faults and irregularities ? 

31. Was the class quiet ? diligent ? 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 99 

QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 

32. How was the order in coming and going, and 

handling books and utensils ? 

33. Was the teacher just in praising ? reprimand- 

ing ? 

34. Was consistent in all actions ? 

35. Did practise self-command ? 

36. What was the condition of the atmosphere ? tem- 

perature ? 



Eemarks : 



MECHANICAL VIRTUES. 

A father who had been annoyed considerably by 
notes . from the teacher which referred to his child's 
want of punctuality, inaccuracy, carelessness, and 
similar shortcomings, called at my office one day, and 
expressed his desire to have a friendly talk with me. 
He did not mean to complain, as he said, but desired 
information. 

Said he, " What is the use of insisting upon the chil- 
dren being in school punctually at nine ? And what is 
the use of insisting upon a uniform ruling of the slates 
and various other similar requirements? I fail to see 
their necessity. You know it is difficult for the whole 
household to adapt itself to the rules of school ; and 
it is oftentimes attended with much heart-burning and 
shedding of tears, when the child attempts to be 
prompt. Now, if there is any virtue in j-our require- 
ments and rules, I fail to see it." 

"Mr. M.," said I, "how have you become so 



100 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

courteous a gentleman? for everybody who knows you 
admires your uniform kindness and politeness." — 
"Why," said he, u that was not difficult. I remem- 
ber when I was young, I was induced to take off my 
hat, and say, ' Good-morning,' i Good-day,' or whatever 
time of the day it ma}' have been. All that small 
coin of politeness is simply the result of habit, there is 
nothing more in it. But what has that got to do with 
the question that I asked ? ' ' 

u A great deal, for you have struck the keynote of 
my argument. Punctuality is acquired mechanically, 
by habitual practice ; so are exactness, promptness, and 
other virtues. Now, all these small mechanical virtues 
must be insisted upon in school, so that they ma}' grow 
into ethical laws which are obeyed without question, 
having become our second nature, so to speak. Out 
of ethical or moral virtues grow celestial virtues. The 
latter are far beyond the code of law, just as the me- 
chanical virtues are below it. 

4t Let me show you, in a single instance, what I 
mean. We insist upon the boys practising politeness. 
This mechanical virtue, politeness, will, as the boy 
advances in age, develop into respect for others. Thie 
respect is something that comes within the pale of the 
code of civil law. The law does not demand polite- 
ness ; but it demands respectful treatment of others, 
for it punishes disrespect, at least lays the offender 
open to a suit for damages. Now, out of this moral 
virtue, respect for others, grows the celestial virtue, 
kindness, which is completely beyond the code of law. 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 101 

The law can neither enforce politeness nor kindness, — 
in other words, neither a mechanical nor a celestial 
virtue. 

"Thus yon see, by this one example, why we are 
obliged to insist upon all those small virtues, which 
in themselves perhaps are worth little, but which are 
the fountain-head of greater virtues. Thus out of clean- 
liness grows purity ; out of accuracy, truthfulness ; 
out of punctuality, regularity and order ; and so on. 
If we allowed your child to come to school at whatever 
time it pleased, or if we allowed it to follow its own 
inclination in preparing work on the slate or on paper, 
we would soon notice a flaw in the child's education. 

"We teachers, you will know, are rather anxious 
that our schools should not be considered mere knowl- 
edge-shops, but institutions for the moral and civil 
training of children as well. There is also this other 
fact regarding our insisting upon punctuality, which 
I must mention. It is, that the child thereby learns 
that he is only one among a great number, who all 
have to obe3 T the same law. Equality before the law 
is a thing which no child can learn unless it attends 
a public school. The child taught privately at home 
will forever be selfishly inclined. However careful 
or consistent } T our home training may be, that one 
thing, civil virtue, can only be learned in a community, 
and the school is a state in miniature." 

Mr. M. arose, shook hands with me, and said, " I 
am convinced, and shall hereafter assist 3*011 in your 
endeavors so far as they concern my child." When 



102 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

the gentleman had left my office, I compared this visit 
with others from ladies ; and I Could not help re- 
membering Charles Reade's common-sense advice to 
officials, which is to this effect: "If you would win 
over a man, argue with him : if a woman, persuade 
her." 

A CASE OF UNINTENTIONAL CRUELTY. 

It was one of those rare warm days in January, 
when my daily duties led me into a schoolroom at 
recess time. Out in the yard the boys and girls 
played to their heart's content, — shouted, ran, and 
followed the impulses of nature which invigorates 
itself by motion ; while in the schoolroom, the win- 
dows of which were closed, sat about twenty .pupils, 
bent over their slates, Cw doing sums." My first 
question to the teacher was, u What are these pupils 
doing? " Ans. — " They are kept in because they are 
backward in arithmetic, having been absent several 
weeks on account of measles and scarlet fever." 
How it is possible that any sane person can act thus, 
is almost inconceivable. I argued with the teacher, 
saying, — 

" Suppose two boys run a race. In the middle of 
the course one of the boys sprains his ankle : do you 
expect him to catch up? Again, these children have 
lost four weeks ; they are weak in body, tender in 
health, and the continuity of their instruction has 
been broken. I understand full well that they are 
backward in many studies ; but do you think that by 



THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 103 

depriving them of their recess, and of that healthful, 
invigorating motion which is the result of play, they 
will catch up with the others? If there are any 
.pupils in your classroom whose bodily condition 
should be taken into consideration, it is these. Mens 
sana in corpore sano. How wearied and pale that 
little girl over yonder looks ! See how her nostrils 
twitch, her head jerks, and her hands tremble. Do 
let us try an experiment. Please let these children 
go to play with the others, and then let us observe 
how they look when they come back." 

The teacher did as I requested ; and the result of 
her observation after recess was, that she said, " Rest 
assured that will never occur again. My pupils shall 
have their recess, and I shall go and play with them." 



CHAPTER III. 

ITODAMEtfTAL EKKOKS IN TEACHING. 



CHAPTER III. 

FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 
PER-CENT SYSTEM OF GRADING. 

It is a notable fact, that while people will not buy 
an exploded contrivance, or a worn-out machine, or 
manufacture goods for the market by antiquated 
methods, but insist on the latest improvements, they 
seem to be satisfied with antiquated methods in school, 
as they were applied by the proverbial school-keepers 
of yore. And while they hire in their workshops and 
factories nothing but skilled labor, they are not much 
troubled when they see persons employed as teachers 
who have not a clear idea of what such terms as 
methods, didactics, etc., imply. Poor talent is fre- 
quently tolerated because it is home talent. While 
people would ridicule any one who would travel with 
rheumatic post-horses, or carry his money in saddle- 
bags, instead of making use of express-trains and 
the many facilities offered by our system of banking, 
these same people permit their children, year after 
year, to travel by antiquated means through the cur- 
riculum of school. People who advocate good whole- 
some food, and who decry adulteration of food, allow 
their children to be fed with indigestible mental food, 

107 



108 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

in form of grammar rules which never did nor ever 
will develop mental faculties or linguistic skill, but 
which were considered a most necessary part of a 
scholar's outfit during the " good olden times." A 
superintendent cannot cure the evil radically ; all that 
is in his power is to apply palliative remedies. The 
great work of reform must be accomplished largely 
by the teachers. I deem it desirable to discuss some 
of the methods that ought to give way to better ones, 
and to suggest the latter. 

Per-Cent System of Grading. — This system of grad- 
ing the pupils, that is, determining their relative stand- 
ing in the class on a scale of one hundred, has greatly 
undermined the teacher^ value. It has brought it 
about, that pupils think that their close attention to 
every-day duties is not needed, that " studying up " 
at the close of the term will secure them the necessary 
44 per cents." And this, to speak candidly, is argu- 
ing correctly. Since, according to the per-cent sys- 
tem, all examination questions must be matter-of-fact 
questions, so that they may be marked on a scale of 
one hundred, it will be easily seen that facts teiii- 
porarity stored up in the memory will serve the pur- 
pose of passing the examination. This is contrary 
to the principles of sound and rational education, 
which condemn such a method of acquiring knowledge 
as false and pernicious. In order to improve the 
teaching, and bring it back to sound and rational 
principles, we must take away the high pressure of 
the per-cent system ; first, by doing away with the 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 109 

scale which suggests the mode of questioning ; second, 
change the mode of dry, matter-of-fact questioning, 
which conditions the mode of teaching ; third, change 
our mode of teaching in order to comply with the 
requirements of nature and actual life. 

The remedy I suggest is simple. Let the pupils' 
papers be examined by the teacher, and let her mark 
them "very good," "good," "satisfactory," or 
" poor ; " any similar expressions will suffice. This is 
recommended, not only for the reason specified above, 
but for the further reason that in this case the indi- 
viduality of the pupil may, and undoubtedly will be, 
considered. The per-cent system is not flexible : it 
submits every pupil to its cast-iron rule. It does not 
take the pupils' natural gifts into consideration, simply 
because the answers to questions like this one, " What 
seaport in Alabama?" can only be right or wrong. 
There is no alternative. Now, give five or ten of 
such questions, and let the memory of a boy who is 
to answer them be weak for geographical data ; and 
the likelihood is, that he comes out of such an ex- 
amination plucked and mortified, his spirit dampened, 
his interest gone, and his ambition will lead him to 
gather, only for temporary use, just such " tidbits 
of knowledge," and then try again. The same boy 
may have a very creditable amount of geographical 
knowledge ; only it is all connected organically with 
previous cognitions in form of associations of thought, 
and he would make a most creditable showing if he 
were asked to make an imaginary journey along the 



110 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TUE DAY. 

coast of the Mexican Gulf, and state what countries, 
rivers, harbors, seaports, etc., he would touch. 

There is also an unpardonable injustice in saying, 
" This child has reached ninety per cent, the other 
only sixty per cent." Who knows but that the sixty 
per cent is the result of hard and earnest toil of a boy 
who may have labored under disadvantages which the 
other boy who reached ninety per cent never knew? 
Who knows but that the sixty-per-cent boy, if meas- 
ured by a hitherto unkuown scale, would far outrank 
the other in character, in steadfastness of purpose, 
in virtue, in tenacity, in moral strength, and in other 
regards? While the ninety-per-cent boy, perhaps, 
was surrounded by all the advantages which a home 
of culture and refinement offers, the sixty-per-cent 
boy, perhaps, could attend school but half the time, 
and had to help support the family ; and yet he 
reached sixty per cent! The injustice is so glaring 
that it cries for redress. 

There is also this to be argued against the per-cent 
system, at least so far as it is found in the primary 
grades : It is the using of terms which are incompre- 
hensible to the small child. He understands if we 
say an exercise is done well or not well. But to 
mark the child's work eighty-five per cent, sixty per 
cent, etc., is about as intelligible to him as marking 
it Popocatepetl or Parallelopipedon ; in other words, 
it is using a s}anbol where no symbol as yet is 
desirable. 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. Ill 



COMPETITION IN SCHOOL. 

The high pressure of the per-cent system on one 
hand, competition caused by too many examinations 
on the other, crushes out all individuality, and makes 
our boys and girls men and women of whom thirteen 
do not make a dozen. "Competition is a curse, 
because it treats children as if they were all endowed 
with the same aptitude," says a writer in a recent 
number of an educational journal. " Overwork on the 
one side," he says, " coupled with self-conceit ; despair 
on the other, coupled with the entire loss of energ}', 
— are the results of competition in our schools." He 
also remarks that " competition is immoral, because 
it is based upon the law of the survival of the fittest ; 
which, however natural it may be, is not a moral law." 

Now, as to the number of examinations, and as to 
their mode, the superintendent, by virtue of his posi- 
tion, has the decision in his hand. But that does not, 
and can not, remove competition from the schools 
entirely, since in some classes the teacher does noth- 
ing but examine all day. The following sarcastic 
statement is the gist of an article upon this subject 
from the pen of Superintendent Aaron Gove of Den- 
ver, a most accomplished leader of educational affairs 
in the West: "Teachers are not teaching; they are 
drifting. A pupil is assigned a task. Soon he is 
examined. When he has demonstrated the accom- 
plishment of his task, he is excused. The recitation 
is concluded. He is assigned another task. An exam- 



112 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

ination determines its performance. So is composed 
the daily routine. He is tested, tried constantly. If 
he does not know a certain thing, he is asked to look 
it up in his text-book. At evening the father spends 
a tired hour in instructing. He wonders what teachers 
do during the day. The pupil learns that recitation is 
examination. He must present results, no matter how 
he obtained them. Ponies and keys are useful. The 
home furnishes a little poor help. The world has 
passed beyond the need of teachers. School is a place 
in which to sit and tell daily what has been learned 
from books. All requisites are in the book. Proper 
application on the part of the pupil will appropriate 
them. The chief duties of the adult person in the 
schoolroom are to prevent riot, and to examine 
pupils." 

Is this an exaggeration? God may grant it ! These 
daily examinations rob the pupil of that tranquillity 
without which no healthy mental growth is possible ; 
it defrauds the teacher of the opportunity of applying 
herself to the weaker pupils, and lend them a helping 
hand, because she spends her time in marking her 
pupils' work on a scale of one hundred, and to write 
examination questions on the board. 

The per-cent system subjects all the pupils of a 
class to the treatment of Strasburg geese, which are 
fed in close confinement — that is, noodled as the tech- 
nical term has it — till their livers are unnaturally 
large ; only that it is the memory of the children which, 
is thus noodled. 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 113 

This mode of daily competitive examinations acts 
like mildew upon the work of pupils, and should 
speedily give way to teaching. It is but just to say, 
that many of our teachers have recognized the evil 
influence of the per-cent system and competitive 
examinations, and now spend their time in occupation 
for which they toere engaged by the authorities. Enter- 
ing a schoolroom, it can at once be seen whether such 
a teacher, or a mere school-keeper, holds sway. In the 
schoolroom of the teacher, the pupils are, as a rule, 
more eager to learn than in the one where daily exam- 
inations are held ; and that painful anxiety so often 
visible upon the pupils' faces, which blights all joys 
and pleasures of life, will not be found. The teacher 
bears in mind, that no two pupils are gifted alike 
by Mother Nature, just as little as she- produces two 
leaves exactly alike. The inevitable difference in apti- 
tude, in power of comprehension and application, found 
among children, is taken into consideration ; and each 
pupil is permitted and led to go to the limits of his 
capabilities. The school-keeper, on the other hand, 
who believes in grading on the scale of one hundred, 
spurs his pupils, drives and pushes them Irv means of 
competitive examinations, considering them all alike 
in natural endowments and capabilities ; and the short, 
but important, educational law, "Individualize," is 
unknown to him. 



114 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

MEMORIZING THE PRINTED PAGE. 

Another, though not the last, and by no means the 
least, of the antediluvian fossils found in school-teach- 
ing, is the reliance of teachers and pupils on books ; 
rote-learning, or unproductive memorizing of text- 
books. When we see children learn by heart from 
the printed page such disconnected, though highly 
flavored, tidbits of information found almost on every 
page of the text-books of geography ; as, for in- 
stance, " Extensive forests of deciduous trees cover the 
greater part of this section." "The stone mountain 
in DeKalb County is a great cariosity." "Indian 
mounds of an unknown antiquity are found in 
Georgia." " ' Zenith ' and 'nadir' are two Arabic 
terms imparting their own signification," — we can- 
not but thank kind Providence for having gifted 
the human memory with the happy faculty of throw- 
ing off what has not gone through the mill of rea- 
son and understanding. What a frightful waste of 
energy is there in schools where such unpalatable and 
indigestible matter is set before the pupils who are 
told to " study " their geography lesson ! Or when we 
see children try to " figure out," or mechanically solve 
problems in arithmetic, by applying rules committed to 
memory from the text-book, instead of rules which are 
the direct result of practice and reasoning, we cannot 
but admit that there is more than one grain of truth in 
the indignant remark of a great lecturer : " Our coun- 
try has become great, not because of its public- school 
system, but despite of it." 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 115 

Or when we hear children recite grammar rules, and 
prattle about numeral adjectives, correlative conjunc- 
tions, or causal adverbial clauses, or inseparable 
phrases, or subordinate propositions, or co-ordinate 
forms of conjugation, and the like, before they can 
give an intelligent account of an event, or even give 
utterance to a simple thought without doing violence 
to their mother-tongue, we cannot but stand in mute 
astonishment, and wonder at the incongruities which 
exist between the requirements of life and those of the 
schoolmaster. 

Memorizing the text-book is but a poor substitute 
for true knowledge. It is a sad mistake to think 
children of our primary and intermediate grades gain 
much valuable knowledge from text-books. Pupils of 
riper age and adults may, and unquestionably do, gain 
knowledge from" the printed pages : young children do 
not. There are two kinds of knowledge, — (1) that 
which has become part of our being, having been men- 
tally assimilated, as it were; and (2) that with which 
we stuff our pockets (our memory). Those who learn 
for the sake of passing an examination merely stuff 
their pockets. This is done much faster than in the 
other way. Those who chew their mental food, digest 
and assimilate it, may at times get discouraged at the 
seemingly small amount they gain ; but since they 
learn thoroughly, they can never lose it again, and in 
the end are the gainers. True knowledge is logically 
and naturally linked with previous cognitions. 

Such knowledge is experience, while the pupil who 



116 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

stuffs his memory is ever obliged to fill it anew; his 
knowledge is of a fleeting Dature. Besides, he weakens 
his memory by mentally swallowing and not digesting. 
If we look at our psychological organs as we do at 
our physiological organs, we cannot fail to notice the 
striking resemblance. A person who learns b} T using 
his five senses, and is made to clearly understand the 
logical connection between new knowledge and previ- 
ous cognitions, will find himself gaining in intellectual 
strength. History and our own every-day experience 
tell us that it is these very persons who make their 
mark in the world, who prove to be the strongest and 
bravest in the battle of life. 

Says a gifted writer, in " Intelligence : " " The pro- 
test against mechanical education, against cramming 
and working for per cents, is timely, and cannot be too 
strongly put. The protest, however, is hurled prop- 
erly against a false method of imparting knowledge. 
If the mechanical methods were successful in convey- 
ing knowledge, the fact that they are mechanical would 
not stand against them. If you can cram knowledge 
into children, in God's name do it ; but you cannot. 
The student who is crammed is not intelligent : he 
does not know facts ; he gains neither information 
nor discipline. There is no mechanical way of pro- 
viding intellectual results. Dean Swift's Academy of 
Laputa is not what is, but only what Gulliver saw. 
Why should we try the experiment of writing a 
geometrical problem on a wafer, and compelling our 
pupil to swallow it, in order to impress the demonstra- 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 117 

tion on his brain? The object of teaching is to store 
the mind with knowledge ; but it is also to develop 
mental power and moral character. The acquisition 
and retention of exact, systematic, true, good, and 
beautiful knowledge, creates a clear mind and a pure 
heart. Knowledge and power are one ; they coalesce 
and become wisdom, the prize that is precious above 
rubies." 

EX A MINA TION Q UES TIONS. 

Here is a set of questions of the old customary 
type : — 

What isthmus joins North and South America ? 
What cape projects into the Arctic Ocean ? 
What island east of Greenland ? 
What great river empties into the Gulf of Mexico ? 
What river empties into the Arctic Ocean ? 
What country south-east of Mexico ? 
What country north of New England ? 
What is the largest river in New England ? 
Which is the smallest of the Middle States ? 
What seaport in South Carolina ? 

And here is another set of similar. questions : — 

How many bones in the hand ? 
IS ame the bones of the skull. 
State composition of the bones. 
What is the office of the heart ? 
What are arteries ? Veins ? 
Name the digestive organs. 
How many teeth has man ? 
Describe the structure of the ear. 
Describe the structure of a muscle. 



118 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

These are patent questions suggested, nay, required, 
by the abominable system of grading by per cents. If 
we do away with this mode of grading papers and 
pupils, we can ask questions of wider bearing, — ques- 
tions, the answering of which will permit the pupil to 
show his skill in applying language ; to give a full 
account of certain branches of knowledge, as far as he 
has mastered them ; and show be' not only ivhat 
he knows, but how he knows it. 

Acting upon this suggestion, it would be well to 
change the customary examination questions. Instead 
of such questions as the above, we might submit some 
like these : — 

Geography. — If you were to make a voyage from Copenhagen 
to Home, along the coast of Western Europe, what countries 
would you pass ? Mention all important rivers, the mouths of 
which you would pass on this voyage. Mention large, seaports, 
also the capitals of the countries you pass. Mention the moun- 
tain ranges and two important lakes situated in Western 
Europe. State what people inhabit these different countries, 
and what language they speak, etc. Suppose a straight line be 
drawn from Washington to San Francisco, state through what 
States and Territories this line would go. Mention large cities 
south and north of this line. Mention the different mountain 
ranges and large rivers the line will cross, etc. Describe the 
Ohio Valley; extent, rivers, watersheds, lakes (if any), canals, 
cities, manufactories, natural products, means of commerce, 
etc. Why is Salt Lake salt, and Lake Erie not ? Why are 
rivers on the east side of the Appalachian Mountains so much 
shorter than those on the west ? Why does the Miami River 
flow south? What States are drained by the Mississippi? 
Why is the climate of Oregon much warmer than that of Min- 
nesota ? Name the principal waters that wash the shores of 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 119 

North America. How would you travel by water from Hamil- 
ton to New Orleans ? Mention the highest mountains in 
South America; the largest river; the largest state; four of 
the most important cities; two islands; two seaports, etc. 
Describe a journey: select your own point of destination. 

United States History. — Give a short account of the mound- 
builders. What led to the re-discovery of America by Colum- 
bus ? Describe the Spanish explorations in the South-west. 
State how the several Colonies were governed. Give a short 
account of William Penn and his colony. Give a short account 
of the French and Indian War. What were the causes of the 
Revolutionary War ? Define the terms "revolution" and "re- 
bellion." State some leading ideas of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. 

General History. — AYhat are the sources of our knowledge of 
Babylonian, Assyrian, and ChaLlrean history ? State what you 
learned of the culture of the Shemitic races. State the rise 
and fall of the Phoenician state ; a few dates. Give an account 
of the early history of the Hebrews ; three dates. State what 
you learned of the customs and culture of the ancient Egyp- 
tians. What did Solon and Pericles do, that they deserve to be 
classed among the greatest of men ? Describe the heroic death 
of Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans. Give a short 
account of the life and career of Tiberius Gracchus. State 
some causes of the downfall of the Roman Republic. Give an 
account of the Roman conquests in Gaul and Germany. 

Physiology. — Describe the teeth. State how they are pre- 
served, and what makes them decay early. State difference 
between teeth and bones. Give rules of hygiene of the bones. 
(Examples.) Describe the anatomy of the muscular system. 
Give a description of the anatomy of the circulatory organs. 
Give an account of the physiology of the digestive organs. 
State hygienic rules regarding the respiratory organs. 

[Note. — In making these statements, confine yourself to the 
essentials. Lead-pencil sketches in the margin, illustrating 
the subject matter, will greatly enhance the value of the work.] 



120 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Natural Philosophy. — Describe the common lifting-pump 
and the force-pump. State the underlying principles. Describe 
the hydrostatic or hydraulic press. Principles. Describe an 
artesian well. Principles. Define: Matter, Inertia, Elasticity, 
Energy, Gravitation. Describe the formation of primary and 
secondary rainbows. State why, of all the colors, red is always 
at the top in a primary bow. Where is it in a secondary bow, 
and why ? Show why the image of an object is as far behind 
the mirror as the object is in front. Describe the human ear, 
and state the functions of its principal parts. Give one impor- 
tant law of acoustics. Describe an organ-pipe, also a string- 
instrument, and show how sound is produced. 

| Note. — Lead-pencil sketches in the text, illustrating the 
subject matter, will greatly enhance the value of the work.] 

Literature. — State in chronologic order what races inhab- 
ited Great Britain, or ruled over it. What are the components 
of the English language now? State King Alfred's literary 
influence. Give a sbort biographical sketch of Chaucer. State 
the plan of the Canterbury Tales. Give leading features of 
"The Faerie Queene." What is the literary importance of 
Edmund Spenser? What is said about the early theatres? 
What is commonly understood by the term "literature"? 
Give a brief account of John Milton's literary career. Give 
an account of Bacon's political success and disgrace. Give a 
brief synopsis of Shakspeare's " Hamlet." State Shakspeare's 
influence in the history of the English language. Give the 
titles of three historical, two semi-historical or legendary, and 
five fictitious plays of Shakspeare. 

The above questions are inserted merely to show the 
nature of the examinations that were held under my 
direction. They are suggestive both to teachers and 
pupils, and, it is to be hoped, may show the way out 
of the mire of mechanical memory-cramming, into 
rational teaching. In the high school, it should be 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 121 

the custom to give out, at the end of each term, a 
limited number of themes from each study (except 
mathematics), and each pupil should be permitted to 
choose one of them, and to write as complete a dis- 
sertation as possible upon that subject. These essays 
are either satisfactory, or they are not. In the latter 
case, a second examination may be required. This 
procedure will make the gauging of children's intel- 
lectual depth by per cents impossible. It will make 
the teacher's instruction more rational and thorough. 
It will teach the pupils to learn well. But, above 
all, it will cause their power of application to grow. 
It will make a language lesson of every lesson, 
even in arithmetic, since it obliges them to express 
well what they have learned. Granted, that this is 
not making the work of the teacher easier ; but it 
need scarcely be asserted, that the schools are not 
maintained for the better accommodation of teachers. 

FROM THE FRYING-PAN INTO THE FIRE. 

During the last ten } r ears, school education in this 
country has received a new impulse ; and one of the 
most objectionable features of school work in former 
years, namely, the custom of subjecting pupils to the 
hardship of too many written examinations, has been 
frequently and savagely attacked. I ought to add, 
justly, because the evil effects of frequent written 
examinations can scarcely be estimated, particularly if 
their results are marked upon the scale of one hun- 
dred. There is a complete chain of cause and effect 



122 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

in this matter. The scale used in marking necessi- 
tates a peculiar mode of questioning ; that is to say, 
little matter-of-fact questions must be asked, in order 
to gauge the answers on a scale of one hundred, or 
any other mathematical scale. Teachers, knowing the 
kind of questions to be asked, fashion their instruction 
to suit the requirements of the examination. Thus 
they lay undue weight upon the development of the 
memory, overloading the mental stomach of their 
pupils with facts which are very easily forgotten 
after the examination is over. Pupils, knowing by 
experience what kind of examinations are given, learn 
accordingly ; that is, acquire knowledge in such a 
manner as will assure them good results on examina- 
tion-day. All rational teaching is thus killed in the 
bud. 

It has come to be well understood, that the teacher 
is to be a teacher, 'and not a mere school-keeper and 
task-master ; and the better that fact came to be 
understood, the greater and more obstinate became the 
opposition and justifiable wrath against the stultifying 
examinations, the number of which was reduced at 
various points at first from ten to five, from live to 
three, and in some places even to one per year. 
Promotions were based partly upon the results of 
examinations, partly upon the recommendations of 
the teachers, who expressed their judgment by add- 
ing the word prepared, or doubtful, or unprepared, after 
the names of the pupils in the class-record. This 
mode was adopted some years ago in Hamilton, and 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 123 

it works very well. It recognizes the teacher's value, 
and it shows the pupils that the faithful discharge of 
their daily duties will count when it comes to a final 
judgment at the close of the year. 

Of late, a very objectionable and detrimental step 
with regard to promotions has been recommended in 
various places. The fatal result of making promo- 
tions dependent upon written examinations, and the 
evil influence it has upon the daily work in the class- 
room, was at once conceded ; and, therefore, written 
examinations were abolished. In their stead, was put 
a system of daily marking. I need not describe this 
any further ; the word carries with it its own defini- 
tion. Teachers, principals, and editors of the daily 
press, intelligent and otherwise, highly applauded the 
new measure. The panacea of all educational evils 
seemed to have been found. 

Let us see whether the new plan can be recom- 
mended. Of what does it consist? 

Any good daily programme of school-work has no 
less than five lessons. I need not enumerate them. 
The teacher sits at her desk, pencil in hand, and 
the class-record before her. Let the first lesson be 
arithmetic. A certain number of problems are given 
out. They are worked. Now the work is examined, 
and the results are recorded, — so many 100's, so 
many 90's, so many 80's, etc., ad infinitum and ad 
nauseam. There is no time for teaching. The 
teacher is degraded to a mere marling machine. 
The hour is past. Perhaps geography is taken up 



124 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

now. The lesson (the Lord forgive the irony of this 
term !) consists in hearing the pupils recite what they 
memorized from the printed page ; and as they pro- 
ceed, they receive their mark which is instantly 
recorded. Demonstrations on the board, and inves- 
tigation of maps, explanation, Socratic questioning, 
and all that is justly considered part of rational teach- 
ing, is prevented by the necessity of recording marks. 
Thus the spelling-lessons are merely recitations of 
words crammed and jammed into the memory, there 
to abide only for the time being ; and every pupil of 
common-sense will amend the Scripture word so as to 
read, " Sufficient uuto the day is the nonsense there- 
of." But I must stop here, or the fair reader will lay 
down the book, loathing the sight of the picture I am 
delineating. 

The monthly and term examinations are abolished, 
and daily examinations are put in their places. That's 
the long and the short of it, to use a little wholesome 
slang. From three, four, or five examinations per 
year, the number is raised to two hundred ; and this 
is what is called progress. Comenius, Pestalozzi, 
Locke, Rousseau, Diesterweg, and Horace Mann will 
turn in their graves when they hear of this wonderful 
progress. 

It will be said that this system of daily marking 
does not necessarily prevent rational teaching. No, 
it does not : but I have yet to see the horse that can 
walk straight in a circular treadmill ; and I have yet 
to see the pupil who will have eyes and ears for any 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 125 

thing but his marks, if he knows that upon that tender 
thread bangs his chance of promotion ; and I have 
yet to see the teacher's character that can cope with 
an influence so deadening, with a routine so stultif} T - 
ing, and with a custom so degrading, as the daily 
examinations and daily marking. 

Examinations are very useful institutions ; it is 
only their abuse which makes them objectionable : 
but let them be examinations, not " examinationlets." 
Let there be a reasonable number of them, not two 
hundred a year. Do not make promotions dependent 
upon the examination wholly ; but let their results be 
accompanied by a recommendation from the teacher 
who knows the pupil, and has had opportunities to 
study him all the year round. Where the system of 
daily marking is adopted, the school authorities make 
a grave and serious mistake. They actually "kill" 
the school, and make of it a drilling institution ; and the 
art of teaching is thus degraded to a handicraft. 

How true are the words of a great American lecturer 
who said, " Every thing American is a fusion of dis- 
tant and antagonistic elements. Active intellect, 
practical skill, world-wide enterprise, meet side by 
side with dead conservatism in church and school, 
the most liberal ideas with devoted habits and meek 
creed in home and family; aggressive freedom, with 
conceited narrowness. Nothing can be praised in our 
wide realm without an abundance of damning excep- 
tions, and nothing denounced without a liberal share 
of cordial praise." But the daily marking of school- 



126 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

work does not belong to those things which deserve 
cordial praise through being denounced, for there is 
not one iota of merit in it. 

THE OUTLOOK. 

There is in every nation, as in the life of every 
individual, a time of plasticity. During this time 
the human being develops his individuality. Certain 
qualities in him become fixed, and capable of being 
transmitted to his children. What is individuality in 
the person is type in the nation. The English settlers 
in America, cut loose from the mother country and 
its culture, dependent upon their own strength, in- 
genuity, and resources, soon drifted away from old 
established customs, thoughts, modes of life and 
action, adapted themselves to surrounding circum- 
stances, and developed a type peculiarly American. 
This type became so pronounced during the eighteenth 
century, that it asserted itself in violent opposition 
to England. The habits, thoughts, social relations, 
mode of life, manner of action, etc., were no longer 
colonial : they had become national. In the same 
way the mode of teaching and learning had developed 
certain peculiar traits, had become typical. 

We all know what caused the great abundance of 
self-made men: they were, and still are, typically 
American. ( Now, the typical American boy gained his 
knowledge as the man gained his fortune, — namely, 
without assistance. What he is and has, he is and 
has by his own exertion, attended by much waste of 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 127 

time and energy. The self-made student acquires his 
knowledge from books, not through instruction. He 
does not learn a thing for the sake of knowing it, or 
for the sake of the discipline it affords, but merely 
toward securing other ends. Now, the modes of 
teaching of the typical American school of the earlier 
periods were legitimate : they were the exponents of 
life in America. That the typical American teacher 
of yore kept school, heard recitations, assigned lessons, 
examined, and tested daily and hourly, we can com- 
prehend — and pardon. But life, and the American 
people, have changed. The old American type is 
fast receding, since untold millions of immigrants 
have arrived. The Union is a gigantic crucible, 
within which the representatives of the different na- 
tions are fused to a homogeneous whole. Each 
nation adds some of its virtues, and, alas ! some of 
its vices, to the fusion. 

We are at present in a second era of plasticity ; we 
see it from changes going on within reach of our own 

o o o 

experience. Thirty years ago this country was song- 
less. Gen. Grant used to say: " I know only two 
tunes; one is Yankee Doodle, and the other isn't." 
The changes going on in our country in industrial 
pursuits, in art, in architecture, in habits and modes 
of living, are very perceptible, but need not be enu- 
merated here. And we are changing our mode of 
teaching and studying also. When the great influx 
of foreign elements ceases, the mixture in the cruci- 
ble will become clear, and the future type of the 



128 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

American school will have been developed. It will 
not be European, rest assured ; neither will it be 
American, as that term is now understood. It is 
devoutly to be hoped that the pernicious marking 
system, immoral competition, constant testing, and 
soulless memorizing of the printed page, will not 
be leading features of the new American school. 

CATCH-WORDS. 

The historian who, in future years, will write the 
history of the common schools of our era, will un- 
doubtedly choose as a head-line these words : The 
era of pedagogical catch-words. 

Verily, we are in the midst of the time of educa- 
tional catch-words. We fail in strength to let go of 
mere words, and to struggle upward to deeds. We 
have exhumed all the worthy pedagogues of the past, 
have carefully examined and studied them, have 
lifted education to the lofty height of a science, have 
neatly labelled and systematized every branch of edu- 
cational theory and practice ; and to the uninitiated 
eye it is a sight worthy to make the heart glad. 

But, somehow, there seems to be a discrepancy 
between our theory and our practice, or theory must 
have grown beyond our heads. We have striven 
toward art, and have reached artificiality. We have 
sketched the imposing temple of education in grand, 
bold outlines, and then injured it by suffocating 
details. We have departed from nature, and opened 
the gates, nay, even the most sacred compartments of 



FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 129 

education to the very arch-foes of natural growth, — 
to routiuisra and mechanism. We have to thank our- 
selves for our want of success. We should confess 
this, and humbly whisper, " Lord, forgive us, for 
we knew not what we did ! ' ' We owe a great deal 
of our present indecision and helplessness to the 
catch- words that seemed comprehensible to every 
one by their popularity. And I dare say this popu- 
larity gave rise to the fatal belief that with having 
the word we had the thing. 

There is scarcely a teacher. who has not his or her 
own definite opinion as to the aim and end of popular 
education ; there are but few who could not, at length 
and with the air of conviction, interpret to laymen 
the principles of teaching according to Nature's laws, 
or profoundly explain the psychological influence of 
certain branches, or certain modes of instruction, 
upon the formation of character ; not one but seems 
to know all about moral and aesthetic culture. There 
is not a graduate of a normal school, not a teacher 
of one year's experience, but could make use of such 
catch-words as "the principle of objective teaching," 
" analytic and synthetic methods," and others. 

We have caught the words, and fought with them ; 
and, according to the verdict of immortal Goethe, 
"words are very convenient weapons." True, the 
actual results are not up to just expectations, and 
certainly not in harmony with the apparently profound 
knowledge exhibited in professional circles. 

Do not, fair reader, for Ti moment entertain the 



130 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

idea that this state of affairs prevails' in our profes- 
sion only. It is the case in many other professions 
of our time. That the catch-worcls are not as easily 
detected, for instance, in the science and practice of 
medicine as they are in our profession, is owing to 
the fact that medicine is carefully guarded by a high 
wall of Latin, while we must speak plain English or 
German, as the case may be. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OP TEACHING. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 
(after Lindner's treatise.) 

I. TEACH IN ACCORDANCE WITH NATURE'S 
LA WS. 

This principle may be interpreted in two ways. 
First, viewed objectively, it may mean : In teaching, 
proceed as Nature does in all her work. She always 
awaits the proper time. She prepares her matter 
before she gives it shape. Her work is from within 
outwards. She begins her formations with general 
outlines. She never makes a leap, but proceeds step 
by step. She develops all her various and manifold 
forms from the smallest, imperceptible beginnings. 
She proceeds from the easy to the more difficult. 
She never does any thing uselessly. She never acts 
rashly, yet ever moves onward. She never isolates 
any thing, but keeps all in relation and connection. 
She invigorates herself by continuous motion. In a 
similar manner the teacher should proceed. His work 
must begin at the proper time. He must prepare and 
arrange the matter of instruction. He should not try 
to plant cognitions with empty words, but let them 

133- 



184 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

grow from the seed of sense-perception from within 
outwards. Outlines should precede the thorough 
treatise. All his procedures should be step-by-step 
motion, etc. In this way Comenius interpreted the 
term "teaching according to Nature's laws." 

But a deeper conception of this principle is gained 
if we interpret it subjectively, to wit : Proceed in 
teaching as the nature of the pupil dictates. This is 
the way Pestalozzi and Diesterweg understood this 
principle. Not nature in general, but the nature of 
the particular human being to be taught, should guide 
us. In all our endeavors to assist the development 
of that human being, his own peculiar combination 
of natural gifts dictates what to do. Pestalozzi's own 
words are : " The course of Nature in the development 
of the human race is immutable. There can be no 
different good ways in teaching : there is but one 
good one, and that is the one which is strictly in 
accordance with Nature's unchangeable laws." 

The teacher, as is now generally understood, even 
by a "pupil teacher" in the backwoods, has the 
duty to assist the process of development by suitable 
measures, commonly called teaching ; and to that end 
he must know the natural laws of mental development, 
because his work will be fruitless if he violates them. 
These laws are found in the science of psychology if 
we refer to the pupil or subject ; they are found in 
the science of logic if we refer to the matter or object 
of instruction. 

The principle, u teach according to Nature's laws," 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 135 

is the most important in the science and art of teach- 
ing. All other principles are contained in it like 
germs. But as a principle of its own it is too gen- 
eral, too indefinite, to make it a rule for the practice 
of teaching. We must therefore proceed to more 
particular and definite ones. 

Note. — We say teaching is an art, and therefore in teach- 
ing we find the same relation which exists between Art and 
Nature in general. First, Art imitates Nature, and borrows its 
ideal - models from her; but it is also subject to Nature's un- 
alterable laws, particularly those laws which govern the matter 
used in Art. Thus the art of painting is subject to the laws 
of light and perspective, architecture to the laws of gravity, 
music to those of sound ; and it is literally impossible to devi- 
ate from them. According to Comenius' interpretation, the 
teacher is to be Nature's imitator; according to Diesterweg, 
he is Nature's servant. 

II. TEACH IN ACCORDANCE WITH PSYCHO- 
LOGICAL LAWS. 

Teaching will be agreeable to Nature's laws if it is 
done psychologically, that is to say, if it has proper 
regard to the laws of psychological development of 
the human mind. To this end it is necessary to regard 
the whole human being, and not merely a certain faculty. 
The instructor must stimulate all the powers of the 
soul ; not merely develop the memory for instance, or 
the imagination, or the intellect, alone, but also the 
emotions. Another postulate is, he should start from 
the standpoint of the pupil, and proceed from the known 
to the unknown. Similar maxims, equally important, 



136 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

are : Proceed from the easy to the more difficult, from 
the near to the remote, from the concrete to the ab- 
stract, from the particular to the general, from the 
example to the rule, from the object to its symbol, from 
the idea to its name. Do not use words that convey 
no idea as yet. This is the procedure known in 
methodology as analytic and genetic procedure. 

The starting-point of the earliest instruction will 
always remain that range of experience which the 
child gains before it enters school ; the starting-point 
in every higher grade is on that level to which the 
pupil has been raised in the preceding grade. This 
secures continuity of instruction, one of the requisites 
of success; 

If the teacher were to disregard the standpoint of 
the pupil in any grade of the school curriculum, he 
would be in danger of either offering him knowledge 
as new which he has mastered before, or presupposing 
unknown things as learned, digested, and assimilated. 
In the former case the teacher would become tedious ; 
in the latter, incomprehensible. To give the argument 
concerning psychological laws in a nutshell, we will 
say, the instruction should be in strict accordance with 
the actual stage of development of the learner, at 
every step and at all times. 

Note 1. — Of the particular rules given for psychological 
procedure, only the first, namely, "from the known to the 
unknown," is applicable in every case. The recent crusade in 
New England against this maxim is too trifling to be considered. 
The other maxims are subject to limitations. Thus, it may 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 137 

happen, that an easier part of a branch of study may follow a 
more difficult one; for instance, the chapter in geometry which 
treats of circles follows the Pythagorean problem. In many 
sciences the elementary ideas and fundamental definitions at the 
beginning of the study are the most difficult. While the rule 
says, "Proceed from the near to the remote,." it is very fre- 
quently the fact that the more remote, in geography for instance, 
is treated before objects nearer home. The sun, which is a 
very remote object, is spoken of and viewed before Australia is 
treated ; and in history, knowledge of the Orient is frequently 
offered before home history is treated. But no man of common 
sense will on that account object to the rule as it stands. 

Note 2. — The oft-quoted maxim, "from the simple to 
the complex," cannot be supported, because that which is 
gained by experience through the senses is not always simple. 
The more difficult general ideas are simpler than the particular 
ones gained by observation. 

III. TEACH OBJECTIVELY; APPEAL TO THE 

SENSES. 

The maxims derived from the second principle, all 
more or less peremptorily demand this: "Teach ob- 
jectively." Sensations and percepts are the building- 
material of concepts, cognitions, and ideas. The young 
child's range of experience, its mental horizon, is liter- 
ally filled with percepts, few of which have been formed 
into concepts. The } r oung child's mind is only capable 
of sensation, perception, and conception. That which 
is perceivable by the senses is that which is nearest, 
easiest, simplest. Hence the principle, " Teach objec- 
tively," is correct at least for elementary instruction. 

But it holds good also for every other step of in- 



138 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

struction : for ideas without percepts are empty and 
meaningless ; they are garments without substance. 
Whenever new terms come up in instruction, the teacher 
should at once see to it that they are illustrated aptly, 
so that they are substantiated, so to speak, and organ- 
ically linked with previous cognitions. 

This was doubted by a young teacher, one day, in 
my presence ; and I led the doubter ad absurdum by 
asking him whether he thought pumpernickel should be 
recommended in a case of gout? A blank stare was 
the answer, until finally his question, " What is pum- 
pernickel?" broke the spell and his doubt. Such 
words as "arsenal," "tributary," "elevation," "con- 
stellation," and other words of Latin and Greek origin, 
do not convey a meaning unless an appeal to the senses 
or to ideas previously acquired has been made. The 
difficulty and want of success in teaching often results 
from the fact that the teacher is too abstract, that 
words are used for which the child cannot find objects 
of comparison or contrast in his "picture-book of 
experience," his memory. 

The objective teacher illustrates all new terms as far 
as" possible, either by showing the objects in natura, or 
by means of models, pictures, drawings, sketches, dia- 
grams, so that the terms may leave a residue of sense- 
perception in the memory. All the impressions which 
we gain from an object by means of the five senses 
form an idea. 

Thus, for instance, we have no clear idea of an apple 
unless we have perceived it through all the five senses. 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 139 

We see its color and form ; feel whether it is hard or 
soft, smooth or rough ; we taste it, and thus find whether 
it is sour or sweet ; we smell it, and distinguish, even 
when blindfolded, from the smell of a pear or plum. 
We even recognize it by the sense of hearing : an apple 
that rolls on the floor is recognized even by a blind 
person . 

To objective teaching belongs also the example of 
the teacher, the showing how to work whenever ac- 
complishments, such as penmanship, drawing, singing, 
etc., are the subject of a lesson. The teacher's copy 
on the board, his example in reading, drawing, nar- 
rating, translating, etc., all these may be considered as 
parts of objective teaching. Pestalozzi formulates the 
principle of objective teaching as follows : Anschau- 
ung (perception) is the absolute foundation of all cog- 
nitions ; that is to say, all cognitions are derived from 
perceptions, and can be traced back to them. 

IV. TEACH INTELLIGIBLY. 

Teach intelligibly, so that you are easily understood. 
This principle demands that the acquisition and reten- 
tion of the matter be made easy to the pupil. The 
teacher will be the more successful, the easier the pupil 
finds the act of learning. 

Though all principles of teaching should aim at this, 
a few maxims may be gathered under this head. 

1. Teach the elements thoroughly, for in them most 
of the difficulties are heaped up. Remember, all 
beginnings are difficult. 



140 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

2. Proceed slowly ; teach little, but be precise and 
exacting in 3-our demands. Do not hurry unduly, 
and never forget to lead the child back to the elements 
of knowledge, so that all cognitions be organically con- 
nected with previously acquired knowledge. Niemeyer 
says : " Appear to lose time in order to gain it ; do not 
proceed to the next step unless you are confident that 
the former has been reached." 

3. Ideas should be illustrated by things and allu- 
sions to things lying within the mental horizon of the 
children. Comenius says, "A teacher is cruel who 
demands mental work of his pupils without previous 
explanation or drill resulting in the ability to do said 
work." 

4. Keep within bounds in teaching. This is to be 
understood to mean, teach as little as possible for 
future oblivion. There are teachers who honestly 
strive to teach all they know. Beginners fall into 
this error quite frequently. Goethe says, " In der 
Beschrankung zeigt sicli der Meister." (A master 
proves himself such under restraint.) 

5. Separate the essentials from the non-essentials. 
Point at the former, and in reviewing lay stress upon 
them only. 

6. Arrange systematically — that is, logically and 
methodically — the matter of instruction in parts and 
steps, so that the pupil can proceed by degrees without 
making undue leaps or being kept back. 

7. Proceed from the object to its symbol, from the 
idea to the word ; never vice versa. Do not speak 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 141 

of things of which the pupils have no conception as 
yet. Vainglorious talk in school is a crime. The 
language of the teacher should be simple, clear, com- 
prehensible. 

Note 1. — Like all the other principles, the foregoing must be 
accepted and followed with the limitations caused by the rela- 
tion of these principles to each other. Making learning easy 
should not be interpreted to mean to cripple the enthusiasm or 
self-activity of the pupil. This would violate principle No. 7. 

Note 2. — The maxim, "Make things comprehensible," 
should not lead us to exclude every thing the explanation of 
which is beyond a possibility. Many facts must be taken upon 
trust in childhood, as well as in later years. Even science can- 
not explain all known phenomena, and sometimes loses itself 
in useless speculations. All we can do is to classify these facts, 
and wait patiently, till by means of comparison and contrast 
a general law may be deduced, or cause and effect be discovered. 
Children often learn facts which remain totally uncomprehended 
by them, and we believe they are enriching their mind, while 
thef only overburden their memory. Not much damage is done 
thereby, except that mental dyspepsia is caused by thus con- 
stantly storing up facts which are not linked with previous 
cognitions; while healthy growth is caused when the facts are 
digested and assimilated, that is, recognized in their intimate 
relation to others. The acquisition of uncomprehended facts is 
not necessarily vicious in its effects, so long as these facts are 
not. in contradiction to cognitions gained previously. The un- 
comprehended fact may be true, though we do not see its causes 
and relations. For instance, we have not yet learned or com- 
prehended how the grass grows, but there is no contradiction 
between the facts and the known laws of nature. 



142 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Method, in general, is the mode of procedure which 
follows certain rules applied with the intention of gain- 
ing a certain end ; or, " method is the way of reaching 
a given end by a series of acts which tend to secure 
it." Every practical performance may be conducted 
either irregularly, that is, arbitrarily and accidentally ; 
or regularly, that is, methodically. In this sense we 
speak of a method of swimming, riding, painting, eat- 
ing, etc. 

Method of teaching is the mode of procedure in 
teaching which follows given rules. It is the way 
upon which the teacher leads his pupils in order to 
make them reach the ultimate aim of instruction. It 
is the answer to the question, " How should the matter 
of instruction be arranged and treated, in order to be 
comprehended, digested, and assimilated easily and 
willingly by the pupil? " 

The answer to this question must of necessity differ 
as we refer to the (1) course, (2) form, (3) manner, 
or (4) means of teaching. 

The course of teaching, frequently called method, is 
so far objective as it disregards the peculiar manner 
of the teacher, and may be applied to all teaching, 
since it has reference only to knowledge and accom- 
plishment, that is, the matter to be taught, not to 
the varying conditions of the person to be taught. The 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 143 

course of teaching, like the prescribed course of study, 
is soulless until interpreted and applied by% teacher 
who, by his form and mode of teaching, can animate it. 

The form of teaching has reference to the outer 
procedure ; that is, the mode of conduct and communi- 
cation on the part of the teacher toward the pupil. 
For this part of method, also, very well-defined rules 
can be and are applied. 

The manner of teaching, on the other hand, is purely 
subjective, since it depends upon the teaching person, 
and embraces the individual spirit of the teacher, his 
own peculiar manner, his own tone. Though this 
manner, strictly speaking, must vary with different 
individuals, there are still certain particulars which 
all have in common ; and only so far as they are com- 
mon to all or many, are they entitled to consideration 
in the following chapters. 

Note. — It is with reference to this part of methodology that 
the greatest mistakes are made. Teachers often advocate a 
trick, a device, a peculiar mannerism, as a new method. They 
simply confound manner with method of teaching. 

The means of teaching, lastly, are objects of nature, 
artistic representations, books, charts, apparatus, etc., 
used to assist the teacher in teaching, the pupil in 
learning. They are in intimate relation to the method 
pursued, be that inner or outer method of procedure ; 
objective or subjective method; course, form, and 
manner of teaching. 



144 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

DIDACTIC, HEURISTIC, AND SYSTEMATIC METHODS. 

The didactic method is that procedure in which 
knowledge is communicated. This distinguishes it not 
only from the heuristic method, which aims at the self- 
active acquirement or finding of knowledge, but also 
from that procedure known as scientific presentation 
of knowledge ; that is, the systematic method. 

The heuristic method reflects the historic way by 
which the human mind has reached its present status 
of development. Since this way is by no means a 
straight line, but exhibits numerous errors and wind- 
ings from which the short-lived individual must be 
saved, the method, therefore, deviates frequently from 
its historic model. It is the object of the teacher to 
lead the individual upon the shortest road, in a certain 
limited number of years, to a point which the human 
race has reached by a roundabout way during the long 
course of many centuries. 

To this shortest road the systematic method seems 
to commend itself most, because it arranges all cogni- 
tions according to their inner, that is, logical, relation. 
It is that presentation of knowledge of which the 
mathematics offer brilliant examples or models. But 
this strictly systematic presentation, with all its defini- 
tions, divisions, classifications, and conclusions, is only 
suited for riper minds, for the highest or academic 
grades of school instruction, and not applicable in the 
lower grades, because it totally disregards of necessity 
the learner's individuality. 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 145 

The method of teaching, then, — that is, the way in 
which the mind is to be approached, and the manner 
in which the matter of instruction is to be served, — 
must be guided by two considerations : first, the con- 
sideration for the subject of instruction, the pupil; 
and this is the psychological side of instruction, the 
aim of which is to make the pupil susceptible to the 
matter of instruction ; second, by the consideration 
for the objects of instruction, —that is, the nature of 
the matter, — and this is the logical side of instruction, 
which aims at preparing the matter; that is, making it 
palatable and digestive for the mental organs of the 
pupil. 

In all elementary teaching the first consideration is 
weightier than the second, although the latter should 
not be disregarded. In academic instruction the second 
consideration is the more important. 

Note.— A teacher of young pupils who disregards the 
psychological standpoint of the children, and lectures over 
their heads, as it were, is an abomination. That such 
" teachers " are not rare, can be seen from the often-repeated 
phrase, " Now, how often did I tell you that, and yet you do 
not know it!" 

THE ESSENCE OF METHOD. 

Since the teacher cannot, for obvious reasons, teach 
at once all the course of study prescribes, he is obliged 
to divide the matter, and proceed step by step. The 
disposition of the matter of instruction into a series of 
lessons, according to the time prescribed, is the course. 



146 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Every lesson should form a methodical unit, having 
a previously determined object in view. In the pur- 
suit of this object, five stages must be distinguished : — 

I. The preparation ; that is, a repetition of what is 
known by the pupils of the matter under consideration. 

II. The presentation of the new; that is, that with 
which the pupils are to be made familiar. This may 
be either given, or found by self-active investigation. 

III. Connection of the new with cognitions pre- 
viously acquired, so that, for the purpose of appercep- 
tion, repetition and practice become necessary. 

IV. Condensation of general results obtained from 
examples and illustrations, and their formulation into 
good language or set rules, as the case may be. 

V. Application upon examples and cases of prac- 
tical life, so that what is learned may become the 
uudisputed property of the learner, over which he has 
absolute command and control, at any time, and under 
all circumstances. 

The course is by no means an indifferent thing, for 
much depends upon the order in which knowledge is 
presented to the learner, so that its component parts are 
thoroughly comprehended. The course, indeed, is so 
frequently considered as the method, that it leads many 
to an erroneous conception of the term tk method," as 
we shall see farther on. 

In the comprehension of the child, the matter of 
instruction must be so arranged that every following 
new cognition can be linked to previous cognitions. 
No fact must stand isolated ; but must form, in con- 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 147 

nection with many others, an organic unit. That this 
depends upon the disposition of the matter, is clearly 
seen. 

Note 1. — A confused mass of knowledge offered, is the 
diametrical opposite of method. Life teaches in that way, and 
forms a chaos of cognitions and experiences. When the pupil 
comes to school, it is the teacher's duty to disentangle this 
ratking of cognitions, and establish order in the mind. Some 
people, notably auto-didactic scholars, never succeed in estab- 
lishing order in their minds : their ideas are never clear. The 
greatest art in teaching consists in descending to the standpoint 
of the child; to become a child among children, and uncon- 
sciously lift them to a higher level. He who can practise this 
great art needs not method. He is method personified; that is, 
proceeds methodically without being aware of it, and without 
making his pupils feel it. 

Note 2. — The course of teaching referred to in this chap- 
ter must not be confounded with the course of study as pre- 
scribed by school authorities. It is the guide of the teacher's 
own action from step to step. 

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

The method, or the road upon which teacher and 
pupils travel, is conditioned both by the starting- 
point and by the end in view. The starting-point in 
teaching is generally within the circle of experience 
and horizon of knowledge of the pupils. The teacher 
must begin here, lest his teaching be fruitless and use- 
less. He cannot always know the extent of this circle, 
and, therefore, is obliged to explore it to know just 
how high or how low the pupil stands. 

Whatever the teacher finds within this circle of expe- 



148 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

rience will either appear as a ivhole, which may be 
analyzed into its component parts ; or as a number of 
parts, which will have to be linked organically to form 
a whole. The method may, therefore, take the form of 
dissection or dismemberment (analysis), or it may take 
the form of combination or joining (synthesis) , of the 
matter. In the former case we call the method analytic ; 
in the latter, synthetic. 

Now, the whole spoken of may be concrete or 
abstract ; that is, it may be a real thing, an object 
existing in time and space, or a mere notion, an idea, 
or, to speak more accurately, the contents of an idea. 
According to this, analysis, as well as synthesis, may 
be twofold : namely, real, when it refers to the object 
itself ; or ideal, that is, logical, when it refers to a 
conception or idea. 

Analysis of the object will furnish component parts 
which lie side by side when dismembered ; analysis of 
the idea brings out the characteristics within each 
other, and which, with regard to the original idea, are 
higher or lower concepts. Object-analysis is a real 
partition or dismemberment of an object, while thought- 
analysis is a logical abstraction. 

Object-analysis dissects : a tree, for instance, into 
roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves, and fruit ; a 
horse, into head, neck, trunk, and extremities ; a year, 
into seasons, months, etc. ; a product, into its factors ; 
a sentence, into its elements ; a word, into syllables and 
sounds. 

Object-synthesis combines the parts of an object in 



SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 149 

order to produce it in its original form : thus, the 
different provinces or states, to form a union or empire ; 
the prismatic colors, to form the rainbow ; continuous 
adding of one, to make any number ; single acts, to 
form a period in history ; plants showing similarity 
and relationship, to form families and classes in 
botany. 

Object-analysis finds application everywhere, where 
any real object within the child's circle of vision and 
experience is to be explained by partition into its 
component parts. He who thinks of the whole, thinks 
also of the parts ; but the latter often remain obscure, 
and can only be understood by the analytic method. 

Thus, for instance, in the branch of instruction 
commonly called object-lessons, the child has a great 
multiplicity of concepts grown out of a still greater 
number of percepts, but they are mostly all obscure. 
Many a child has seen horses, and has no clear idea of 
a horse's hoofs and joints. This partition and distinc- 
tion is caused by the analytic method. 

In the same manner, the well-known home may be 
made the object of object-analysis ; certain projecting 
points, hills, rivers, bridges, settlements, cities, etc., 
may be singled out, and viewed according to their 
relative position and size. On the other hand, certain 
parts may be made starting points, and the whole the 
end in view. This is the case when the parts are 
that which is given by experience, and the whole that 
which is to be gained. This naturally calls for object- 
synthesis. 



150 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

The attempt to extend geographical knowledge 
beyond the horizon of the home calls for -object-syn- 
thesis. This necessitates the use of imagination, in 
order to form the parts to something like a complete 
thing. Complete maps need to be analyzed ; outline 
maps require synthesis. A very popular method of his- 
torical instruction is that of object-synthesis, namely, 
a linking of facts which follow chronologically. 

Reading and arithmetic were originally taught by 
means of synthesis exclusively (by adding sounds to 
make words, and adding numbers to obtain others). 
In reading, the so-called phonic, or sounding-method, 
proceeds synthetically ; the word-method, analytically. 
The best mode in this case will always be a combina- 
tion of the two ; that is, to analyze words to obtain the 
material with which new words are made. The first 
year's work in arithmetic also should be analytic, as 
well as synthetic. Every new number should be 
obtained by synthesis, and then analyzed into its 
component parts and thus measured. (See G rube's 
procedure.) 

And thus I might go through the whole range of 
studies to show that the teacher can apply analysis 
and synthesis equally well. It will never do to exclude 
one, or even unduly favor the other. 



SUMMARY OF METHODS OF TEACHING. 



Inner Procedure, or the Method of Teaching 

WITH REFERENCE TO 

I. -THE PUPILS. 



all. 



The method may be 
Dogmatic, 

or communicating, 
whereby is or are taught 

only, — * — .main 
principles, points, fragments. 



Or it may be 
Genetic, 

that is, developing, 
and then it is either the 



Elementary 

genetic 



Socratic ^ 

method. 



% S 5 



™ « 5 



s S * 
a o -g 



o i^ o 

fi ^ -o 



1 The Socratic method is 
applied in the inner as well 
as in the outer procedure. 
See below. 



WITH REFERENCE TO 

II. -THE MATTER OF INSTRUCTION. 

The method may proceed from 



the whole, 
Analytic Method, 

that is, from 



the object, 
and then it is 

real-analytic, 
Explanatory 

procedure. 



or the idea; 

and then it is 

ideal-analytic, 

Inductive 

procedure, 



the parts, 
Synthetic Method, 

that is, from parts of 



the object, 
and then it is 
real-synthetic, 
Progressive 

procedure. 



the idea; 

and then it is 

ideal-synthetic, 

Deductive 

procedure. 



Outer Procedure, or the Manner of Teaching; 

that is, the mode of intercourse. It may be 



Monologic, 

when one speaks, and others listen. 
Lecture. 



Dialogic, 2 

when teacher and pupils converse 
with little restraint. 



Socratic. 



Parliamentary. 



2 Catechetic and dialogic 
modes readily blend. 



Catechetic, 2 



when one asks, and others answer, 



repetitory questions, examinatory questions, 



developing questions. 
(Heuristic.) 
151 



CHAPTER V. 

THE AET OP QUESTIONING, AND PRACTICE OP 
TEACHING. 



153 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ART OF QUESTIONING, AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
HINTS TO BEGINNERS. 

Let me draw from my experience in the school- 
room, and offer young teachers, a few hints regarding 
the art of question ing, as it should be applied in the 
primary school, where above knowledge and its gar- 
ment, above skill in making use of it, should be con- 
sidered the growth and development of the child's 
inborn powers. Indeed, the primary school has 
performed its duty, when it has taught its pupils to 
teach themselves. 

First, Then, let me say, it is well to let individual 
pupils answer your questions, for only thus it is 
possible to learn the faults and failings in the knowl- 
edge and language of your pupils. Direct your 
questions to the class, but call upon individual pupils 
to give the answers. If an answer proves to be per- 
fect, call upon the class to repeat it in chorus. Thus 
you will be aiding the whole class in acquiring cor- 
rect knowledge, clothed in fitting garment. Much is 
sinned by having the whole class answer ad libitum. 
This resembles a bushel of chaff containing a few 
grains. 

155 



156 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

Second, As a most excellent exercise, ma} T be 
regarded the writing of a few perfect answers to 
some leading questions, either by the teacher or by 
the pupils. Thus another means is used for fixing 
in the mind that which has been developed in the 
preceding lesson. We are apt to forget that it is not 
so much knowledge, as it is ability and power, toward 
which we should aim. If this writing of a few answers 
is begun early, it may lead to accustom the children to 
express their thoughts in writing more readily than is 
done commonly. 

Third, This, however, is only possible if the teacher 
insists upon it, that the pupil's answer should in every 
case consist of a complete sentence, which embraces 
the teacher's question. I know full well that this has 
been termed pedantic ; but no one thus far has suc- 
ceeded in proposing any thing better for the purpose 
of facilitating clearness of expression, and exercise in 
correct speech. Many teachers hold, that insisting 
upon the pupil's answer being a complete sentence 
is a waste of time. It is true, in the beginning it 
claims much valuable time, like every other thing 
which is taught thoroughly ; but after some weeks it 
will be found a downright saving of time, because 
time in school is saved easiest where the answers 
are the garment of the most thorough and complete 
thoughts. Fragmentary answers will not allow the 
class to follow easily, and the language of the pupils 
will not be facilitated. I believe a few weeks will 
accustom a class to answer in complete sentences. 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 157 

Fourth, Of course he who has no tact in question- 
ing, or who asks questions that are faulty in con- 
struction or poorly emphasized, wilt get poor and 
incomplete answers. The teacher's questions in the 
primary school mast possess three absolutely necessary 
qualities. They must be correctly formed, must be 
precise, and must be true questions. 

What question is correctly formed? Every ques- 
tion which has the interrogative word at the beginning, 
that is to say, which begins with "how," " where," 
" when," « who," » what," « why," or another inter- 
rogative pronoun. Ask, "Where does the squirrel 
live?" and not, "The squirrel lives where?" Such 
questions are as little instructive as is the practice of 
beginning a sentence, and having it finished by the 
pupil; as, for instance, » The swallow builds its nest 
near" — "the window." There is, however, little 
danger of faulty construction in English : much more 
so in other languages, where much depends upon 
correct construction. 

What is a precise question? A question is precise 
if it admits of but one answer, as a good riddle will 
have only one correct solution. 

What is a true question? Every question of correct 
construction, which is not only precise but well em- 
phasized. He who asks, wishes to learn something 
that he does not know as yet. In school, therefore, 
the pupils ought, by rights, ask, and the teacher 
answer. But since this is impossible, for obvious 
reasons, the teacher exchanges position' with the 



158 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

pupils, and artificially places himself in the position 
of him who does not know what is asked for. The 
less the teacher»betrays that he knows what, he asks, 
the more will his question be a real, genuine question, 
and the more readily will the pupil answer. Now, 
since this make-believe is only possible through cor- 
rect emphasis, it is obvious that we should lay much 
stress upon this particular quality of a good question. 
I have met with teachers who are perfect masters in 
the art of questioning, and it is not astonishing at all 
to hear the brilliant answers of their pupils. No 
better proof of a teacher's mastership in this art was 
ever given, than by that conceited little boy, who 
came home from school and said, " I ain't a-going 
to that school any more." — u Why ? " asked his 
mother. " 'Cause our teacher don't know any thing. 
She asks us all the time. We must tell her every 
thing. To-day she even wanted to know what I had 
my boots on for ! ' ' 

There is one more requirement of a true question : 
namely, it must never be uttered in a tone, and accom- 
panied by a mien, from which the child is to imply that 
the teacher has doubts in the pupil's ability to answer. 
Be sure even children, who are little sensitive, feel it, 
and weak ones are discouraged thereby. Confidence 
begets confidence. A teacher who is anxious to per- 
fect herself in the art of questioning will do well, in 
case she receives no answer, to look for the cause in 
the nature of her question. If she finds that it is 
correct, she may perhaps find the cause in the want 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 159 

of connection with the previous answer. Sometimes 
logic requires a connecting link ; sometimes it will 
suffice to repeat the previous answer. Whatever the 
reason of her want of success may be at the beginning, 
she should not lose her patience, for patience is a 
requisite of success in applying the developing method 
in the common school. 

THE SOCRATIC METHOD. 

It has been my enviable pleasure in life to be a 
member of a board of examiners. Grammar, and 
theory and practice, were among the branches assigned 
to me. I hardly ever resorted to a set of cut-and-dried 
questions., but almost invariably called for a composi- 
tion upon a practical question concerning school work. 
That composition would suffice to reveal the examinee's 
knowledge and skill in the use of the language, and 
in many cases it also revealed sufficient knowledge in 
pedagogy to warrant the issuing of a certificate. 

One day a number of normal-school graduates pre- 
sented themselves for examination, accompanied by a 
few teachers of several years' practice. As a subject 
for composition, I gave out, "How to ventilate a 
schoolroom." I do not know what motive prompted 
me at the time, but I recollect to have given the order 
that the composition was to illustrate the Socratic 
manner of teaching. 

The experienced teachers "threw up the sponge" 
at once, saying that they had prepared themselves 
for an old-fashioned examination, and were ready to 



160 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE- BAY. 

answer a set of matter-of-fact questions in each 
branch, as had been the custom ; while the young 
ladies from the normal school quietly went to work 
without grumbling. It is queer, but undeniable, that 
the faithful discharge of duties in the schoolroom on 
the part of the teacher is liable to make him distrust- 
ful of himself and his accomplishments. The result of 
this examination showed that the experienced teachers 
all more or less satisfied me, while the young dam- 
sels all more or less failed in the attempt. 

Now, I wish it to be understood, that I do not say 
this to discredit the good work of the normal schools. 
Far from it, being a normal-school man myself. But 
this much 1 wish to emphasize, that experience in 
the schoolroom is the best normal school I know of. 
Alas ! it has to be maintained and supported at the 
expense of the little children with and upon whom the 
young teacher is experimenting. One of the composi- 
tions then furnished within the short space of an hour 
I wish to reproduce here. I give it with all its errors 
and shortcomings. It illustrates that experience is the 
best teacher, after all. 

VENTILATION" IMPLIES CIRCULATION AND 
AGITATION OF THE AIR. 

[A composition exhibiting the Socratic Manner of Teaching.} 
Question. —What is the purpose of the stove in this room ? 
Answer. — It is to heat the air in this room. 

Q._^rill the stove straightways send the heat into the far- 
thest corner? A. — No, it will heat the air in its immediate 
neighborhood first. 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 161 

Q. — What will the air thus heated do ? A. — It will rise to 
the ceiling. 

Q. — Why will it do that ? A. — It is lighter than cold air. 

Q. — Can you give another proof of the fact, that light gases 
or fluids rise, while heavier ones fall? A. — Yes: if water is 
poured into a glass half full of oil, we will see that the water, 
being heavier, settles on the bottom, while the lighter oil rises 
to the top ; and that holds good also with air and other 
gases. 

Q. — Xow, then, if the heated air rises above the stove, what 
does the cold air farther away from the stove do ? A. — It will 
press forward and take the place vacated by the hot air. There 
will be a constant current of cold air near the floor toward the 
stove, and a constant rise of hot air upward. 

Q. — When will this current be slowest ? A. — When the air 
is pretty evenly heated in the whole room. 

Q. — What would have to be done to cool the air off, in case 
it became too hot to be comfortable? A. — Well, tbe source 
of heat might be diminished by shutting off the draught of the 
stove. 

Q. — Are there other means for decreasing the heat of the air 
in the room ? A. — Yes, by letting more cold air come into the 
room through the windows. 

Q. — Where would you open the windows, below or above ? 
A. — Of course, below. 

Q. — Why ? A. — So that there may be a fresh supply of cold 
air streaming toward our source of heat, the stove. 

Q. — Would you not also lower the upper sash, so as to let hot 
air escape ? A. — Yes, I believe that would be best. 

Q. — Would you lower the upper sash just as much as you 
would raise the lower ? A. — I believe it would be better to 
raise the lower sash less than the upper is lowered. 

Q. — Why ? A. — The cold air, being heavier, would press in 
with more force than the hot air could escape. 

Q. — What is the influence of heat upon matter? A. — It 
expands matter. 



162 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Q. — Does it do the same with air ? A. — Certainly, air be- 
ing matter. And for this very reason it would be better to give 
the hot air more room to escape, than to the cold air to enter. 

Q. — We will not discuss that matter further. But tell me, is 
the necessity for cooling the air the only reason for letting in 
fresh air ? A. — Well, no: I think the oxygen in the air gets 
absorbed by so many lungs as are present in a schoolroom, and 
a fresh supply ought to be provided by a constant current. 

Q; — But would it not be rather uncomfortable to those per- 
sons sitting near the windows, to be subjected to the draught 
of the cold air ? Would it not be injurious to their health ? 
A. — Yes; but I think that might be obviated by letting the 
cold air in at a place where it would least incommode the 
persons in the room. 

Q. — Where could that be? A. — As near the stove as 
possible. 

Q. — Now, then, state how you would arrange the windows. 
A. — I would rai.se the loioer sash of that window which is 
nearest the stove, and I would lower the upper sash of that 
window which is farthest away from the stove. 

Q. — What purposes would be reached by doing so ? A. — An 
even current of fresh air would be occasioned thereby, which 
would not only bring new oxygen into the room, but would 
carry off the foul air ; and, besides, it would secure an even 
temperature. 

TWO EXAMPLES OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONING. 

The first is an imitation of Socrates' manner of 
conversation, by Dr. Watts, which is here reprinted 
for the sake of illustration. 

" If you would lead a person into the belief of a future state 
of reward and punishment after life, you might begin in some 
such manner of inquiry as this, and suppose the most obvious 
and easy answers : — 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 163 

Question. — " Does God govern the world?" Answer.— 
" Surely, he who made it governs it." 

Q. —"Is not God both a good and righteous governor?" 
A. — "Both these characters doubtless belong to him." 

Q- — " What is the true notion of a good and righteous 
governor ? " A. — " That he punishes the wicked and rewards 
the good." 

Q, — "Are the good always rewarded in this life?" A. — 
" No, surely, for many virtuous men are miserable here, and 
greatly afflicted." 

Q- — " Are the wicked always punished in this life ? " 
A. — "No, verily: many of them live without sorrow, and 
some of the vilest of men are often raised to great riches 
and honor." 

Q. — " How, then, does God make it appear that he is good 
and righteous? " A.'— "I own, that there is little appearance 
of it on earth." 

Q. — " Will there not be a time, then, when the tables shall 
be turned, and the scene of things changed, since God governs 
mankind righteously?" A. — " Doubtless, there must be a 
proper time in which God will make that goodness and 
righteousness to appear." 

Q. — "If this be not before their death, how can it be 
done? " A. — " I can think of no other way, but by supposing 
man to have some existence after this life." 

Q- — "Are you not convinced, then, that there must be a 
state of reward and punishment after death?" A. —"Ah, 
yes ! surely, I see now plainly, that the goodness and right- 
eousness of God, as governor of the world, necessarily require 
it." 

The following example may show that it cannot but 
please a child to be taught in the way indicated : — 

A boy, ten years of age, once applied to me, say- 
ing, " I was told the earth was round as a ball. 



164 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

I think I ought to believe it, for it was our teacher 
who told us ; but she said she was goiDg to prove it 
after we had tried to find proofs ourselves. Now, 
how am I going to find them? Will you help me?" 
The following conversation ensued : — 

Question. — "What form will the shadow of this book have 
if I hold it between the light and the wall ? " 

Answer. — " It will be a four-sided [rectangular he meant] 
shadow." 

Q. — "What form will the shadow of this pencil have?" 
A. — " Something like a thick, straight line." * 

Q. — " What form does the shadow of any object take? " 
A. — " Why, the same form that the object has." 

The reader will please notice that here was a fine opportu- 
nity to get off the track. If I had stopped to correct this 
statement, and had gone into the domain of an artist, I should 
not have reached my purpose. So, of course, I left the state- 
ment intact, and went on : — 

Q. — "Is the earth a body that could throw a shadow?" 
A. — " Yes; and a mighty big one it would be, I should 
think." 

Q. — " Have we ever an opportunity to observe its shadow? " 
A. — No, there isn't any wall." 

Q. — " Well, there is no wall on which the shadow could 
fall, but are there no objects in the sky that might be put into 
the shade if the earth should chance to get between them and 
the sun?" A. (after some reflection). — "Yes, I remember 
having heard that the eclipse of the moon is caused by the 
shadow of the earth." 

Q. — "What form had the earth's shadow on the moon?" 
A. — "I remember having seen it twice: the shadow was 
round [circular he meant] both times. Is it always so ? " 

Q. — " Yes, whenever it appears, it exhibits either a part of 
a circular round or a perfect circle. But tell me what bodies 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 165 

always throw a circular shadow." A. — "Balls or spheres 
do that. Oh, now I see, yes ! the earth must be round like 
a ball : it must be a sphere." 

Q. — " But suppose that you take a plate : would not that 
too, if held in a certain position, throw a circular shadow?" 
A. — " Yes, that's so." 

Q. — " Would it always do that, no matter how you held 
it between the light and the wall ? " A. — "No, if you held it 
a little sideways, it would throw an oval shadow ; and if you 
held it so that the light struck the edge only, the shadow would 
narrow down to the shadow of a pencil." 

Q. — "Does our earth ever throw another shadow than a 
circular one ? " A. — " No : as often as I saw it, and as others 
observed it, the shadow was always circular." 

Q. — "What, then, do you learn from this fact?" A. — 
" Since the shadow of the earth upon the moon is always 
circular, and only balls or spheres can throw a circular 
shadow always, I see in that a proof that our earth is a 
sphere." 

I then went on and questioned the boy with regard 
to the fact that the earth has hardly ever the same 
position between the two heavenly bodies, sun and 
moon, and that, therefore, we could positively assert 
that the form of the earth could be nothing but a 
sphere. 

HOW THE MIND GROWS. 

It is a well-understood and convenient phrase to say 
the mind grows in concentric circles. The horizon of 
the child grows more extended as it gathers knowledge 
and experience, just as its horizon of vision grows 
more extended in proportion to the growth of the body. 
The baby's horizon consists of the four walls of the 



166 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 



nursery. The young child's horizon is bounded by 
the garden wall or the neighboring street. That of the 
child in the primary school is apt to be bounded by the 
limits of the town or city ; it is only in rare cases that 
the geographical horizon of a child extends beyond the 




Fig. 1. 

native city or town by the aid of imagination. The 
horizon of a thorough student of geography and 
astronomy is literally boundless. 

The course of study affords an illustration of this 
concentric growth of the mind, inasmuch as it arranges 
all studies concentrically. ( v See Fig. 1.) Here we 
notice, that what are object-lessons in the primary 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 167 

grades become natural history, physiology, physics, and' 
chemistry in the upper and highest grades. The exer- 
cises of the child in number in the primary grade con- 
tain all the germs of the higher mathematics, and the 
child who measures the area of a triangle or trapezium 
lays a good foundation for the study of geometry or 
trigonometry. I need not further enumerate the stud- 
ies, or show how the mental horizon is widened in ever 
larger and larger circles. The foregoing illustration 
explains the matter fully. 

In justice to myself I will say that the arrangement 
of the branches of study given in this cut is not to be 
regarded as final, or even a correct copy of what may 
be found in the different courses of study. The latter 
vary in many instances. It is my object to merely 
show the principle underlying the course of study ; 
namely, every well-arranged course of study presup- 
poses mental growth in concentric circles. The yearly 
rings ma}' differ in width also. 

And after the reader has contemplated the illustra- 
tion sufficiently to see what it signifies, let him cast a 
glance at Fig. 2. 

This is to represent how erratically Nature executes 
the wonderful plans of the course of study. See how 
she causes protuberances and indentations. Notice 
how the child, in one year, rushes forward in one 
branch, and seems to make no headway in others. This 
cut is not to be interpreted as representing the results 
of Nature's work in every case. It is merely a fair 
sample of Nature's work as it is when it leaves the 



168 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 



hands of the teacher after a twelve-years' course of 
school education. The harmonious development of all 
the inborn faculties of mind, heart, and bod} 7 , is a 
beautiful and touching phrase ; but, I am sorry to say, 
nothing but a phrase. 




Fig. 2.— "A" Possible Result. 

Nature offers many examples of similar procedure. 
Look at the annual rings of a tree. The first few rings 
around the heart are almost mathematically correct ; 
but, as the tree grows thicker, protuberances and inden- 
tations are seen, often resulting from very insignificant 
causes. The bite of an insect, the bending of the 
trunk before the storm, a slight abrasure, and similar 
causes, may lead to an irregular growth. 



- THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 169 

Similar trifling causes may warp the mental course 
of a child, and make it irregular. The love or the 
hatred of a teacher may give rise to an enthusiasm or 
an indifference in the pursuit of a certain branch of 
study, and at once we will see either great progress or 
retrogression in the branches he or she teaches. A few 
mild words of approbation or commendation ma} 7 prove 
a strong impetus, while a severe punishment or super- 
fluous praise may cause the contrary. Lucky or un- 
lucky unforeseen circumstances may influence the even 
and harmonious concentric growth of the child, and a 
very considerable bump or a hollow may be the result. 
We are much more children of chance than we are 
willing to admit. 

From the illustrations it may also be seen that some 
branches of study stand in intimate relation to each 
other. It is common practice to divide the different 
branches into linguistic (such as pertain to language), 
mathematical (which, in the earliest stages of school- 
life are purely arithmetical), scientific branches (which 
in the earlier stages are object-lessons) , and accomplish- 
ments (such as writing, reading, drawing, singing, etc.). 

A REVIEW LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. 

Our training class had a review lesson one day, of 
which I will give a summary, and will term it " The 
First Eighteen Years of Life." The diagram (Fig. 3) 
may serve as an illustration of the summary given. 

Intellectual life widens its horizon with every 
succeeding year. This is indicated by the diverging 



170 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 



lines. The parallel bars signify the years. The 
double lines in the diagram, which mark the boundaries 
between the different grades of school, are not indica- 
tive of any real marked difference in treatment of 
either subject or object of instruction, pupil, or matter 
of instruction, but are given to point out a difference 
which is one only in name. 



Eighteenth. \ 


_7) High 


Seventeenth. \ 


/( School 


Sixteenth. \ 


if or 


Fiftp.p.nth. \ 


/ College. 


Fourteenth. \ '*• // 


Thirteenth. \ 


/( Grammar 


Twelfth \ 


if School. 




// 


Tent!) , \ ; ' 


/J 


Ninth. \ 


1 J Primary 


Eighth. \ 


If School. 


Seventh. \ 


// 


Sixth. \ 


1 1) 


Fifth. \ 


ill 


Fourth. \ 


J J [ Early Childhood 


Third. \ 




Second. \ 


m aadlnfanoy - 


First year of life. \ 


V 



Fig. 3. 

The first period of life is that of infancy and early 
childhood. The next four years are those of the 
primary school ; the next four, those of the intermedi- 
ate, often called grammar school ; and the last four, 
of the high school or college. The dotted line, begin- 
ning in the first year, and running up in a curve, is 
to indicate a division between receptive and creative 
activity. 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 171 

Thus we find, that in the earliest period of life the 
mind is receptive to a greater degree, comparatively, 
than in any other period. It is the age of sensation. 
Sensations are caused by the outside world, formed 
into percepts, and these latter into concepts. Per- 
cepts and concepts are stored up, and thus memory is 
created ; but few, if any, clear ideas are formed. 

A recent writer terms the two kinds of activity of 
the mind, sense-action and thought-action. Well, 
very little thought-action occurs in this period ; but 
from the moment that the child enters school, the age 
of observation begins. The child's senses are trained, 
and it observes objects systematically, — their color, 
form, number, size, etc. The mental activity here is 
both receptive and creative, though not in equal pro- 
portion. The child learns to analyze and synthesize. 
All teaching in this period is done by means of 
objects or illustrations. 

The next following period is the age of abstraction, 
in which receptive and creative activity of the mind 
arc about equally divided. Symbols take the place of 
objects in teaching. 

The last stage of school life may be termed the age 
of reflection and generalization. Research in every 
direction is indulged in, and self-activity is stimulated. 
Comparatively few new things are learned in this 
period of life. Cognitions previously acquired are 
verified ; knowledge is systematically arranged ; gen- 
eralization and definition follow up the results of 
research and individual work. And if the student 



172 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

enters a university, he goes even deeper into the 
mysteries of knowledge ; but it is not necessary to 
follow him there. 

The space on the left side of the dotted line, in the 
cut, is to indicate the amount of receptive activity 
engaged in during these years ; the space on the 
right, the amount of reflective or creative activity. 

It is not to be taken for granted that the life of 
every child that passes through our schools resembles 
this sketch. No two, on the contrary, are alike. The 
diagram is merely to show, in rough outlines, the 
principle underlying the manner of teaching in the dif- 
ferent grades. This being a brief summary, it is not 
necessary to apologize for its sketchiness. 

SEE, DO, AND THEN TELL. 

My friend Principal C, of Cincinnati, and I, met 
one day in the train on the way home ; and since we 
always "talk shop" when we meet, we were soon 
deep in a professional conversation which was highly 
interesting to me. Principal C. is not given to cant 
and small-talk ; his conversation is invariably freighted 
with profound thought, and amusing as well as 
instructive bits of experience of school-life. 

Said he on this occasion, "After reading all this 
interminable talk (pardon this incongruity) about 
methods, that now fills, if not the air, at least the 
spacious columns of our numerous professional jour- 
nals, I ask myself with wonder and astonishment, Is 
there any thing else in that, or any thing better, than 



THE AET OF QUESTIONING. 173 

is my mode of procedure, which culminates in this 
short, pithy, but withal comprehensive, rule : ' First 
see, theu do, and then tell about it ' ? Boil down all 
that the advocates of modern teaching say about 
methods, and it will amount to nothing more than 
this: See, do, and tell." 

"Yes, friend C," said I, "undoubtedly you are 
right. Your rule is the gist and essence of many a 
sermon on the new education. As you and I, and 
unquestionably man}* others, understand it, it is a 
condensed code, comprehensive enough, and sensible 
enough, to satisfy any one who has caught the idea, 
that education is not a result, but an action, the result 
of which is culture ; any one who knows that the 
human being is not outside but within nature, and 
therefore subject to the laws of natural growth. But, 
sir, are you aware that the laconic garment of your 
rule is the source of great danger? See how easily 
it is misconstrued." 

" How so, friend K. ? how can it be misconstrued? 
I'll grant that it may be misunderstood, but I doubt 
that it will be purposely misconstrued." 

-* Well, I have a certain ichthyosaurus of a school- 
master in my mind (for whom you need not search 
very far), who would reply at once, if you pronounced 
your rule to him : ' That's exactly what I am doing. 
First, I make my pupil see the text in the book, that 
is, read it ; then I make him do, by learning it verba- 
tim et literatim; and lastly I make him tell, that is, 
recite it.' See, honey? " 



174 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

" I declare, you are a veritable advocatus diaboll, 
brother K." 

" I tell you, friend C, you may pronounce a new 
law of pedagogy, or formulate an old forgotten or 
disregarded law anew, one which is purposely trodden 
under foot for the better convenience of ♦school- 
keepers, and the ichthyosauri and plesiosauri of our 
profession will prove to you, with an alacrity worthy 
of a better purpose, that it is ' exactly what they are 
doing.' They will denounce you as an impostor, be- 
cause what you propose is ' nothing new.' ' 

"Come now," said C, '-'I grant my pithy rule is 
not quite without its weak points. But I trust you do 
not interpret it wrongly. Let me hear how you would 
make this ' see, do, and then tell,' palatable to your 
teachers." 

" My interpretation, briefly stated, would be this : — 

"I. See. — All instruction in the common school 
should begin objectively ; it should first appeal to the 
senses, and not to the eye only. To use a homely 
illustration: We do not fully know an apple, until 
we have not only seen, but tasted, felt, smelled, and 
even heard it (fall or roll on the floor) . Every branch 
of study has a substratum of sense-percepts, from 
which will result those necessary primary concepts 
and ideas which, in turn-, will form the solid founda- 
tion of sound judgment or reasoning. As the mighty 
Pike's Peak is formed by the aid of imagination out 
of a modest elevation near home, viewed by the child 
thousands of miles away from the peak, so, out of the 



THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 175 

simple ordinances and enactments of a city council, 
the child will construe the law-making activity of the 
United States Congress. All the knowledge offered 
to the child is elementary. The very name of the 
schools indicates as much : they are elementary schools. 
The school of life will widen the child's knowledge ; 
experience will build, upon the foundation laid in 
youth, a superstructure which will tower up as high 
as the foundation will permit. Make the first impres- 
sions deep, very deep, and they will be lasting ones. 
The text-book plesiosaurus is like unto the mau who 
intends to make an impression in a wax cake, and 
who softly strikes it with a peacock-feather. He does 
not succeed with the first stroke ; but patiently he 
repeats the stroke ten thousand times, and at last 
makes an impression visible to the naked eye. A 
sensible man applies a sledge-hammer, and lo ! with 
one stroke he makes a deep impression. A direct 
appeal to the senses will make a deep impression. 
Therefore real objects brought into the schoolroom 
are more serviceable than illustrations ; where their 
presence in school is out of the question, we may 
take the pupils out to them. Where all that is im- 
practicable, illustrations or other imitative representa- 
tions will serve better than mere verbal explanations 
or definitions. Give the pupils opportunities for 
seeing, that is, perceiving, observing, investigating, 
handling ; let them not be satisfied with mere hear-say 
evidence as found in books, — and oh the wonderful 
impetus the child-mind receives ! 



176 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

"II. Do. — Perception leads over to concepts and 
ideas. The memory, being the receptacle in which the 
mind collects these concepts and ideas, offers material 
to the mind's creative power, imagination. Elementary 
or primary ideas gained by actual use of the senses 
are like seeds which grow and incite to action. A 
child who has seen that the three angles of a triangle 
are equal to two right angles, by applying the angles 
of a pasteboard triangle to a straight line, is not likely 
to rest content after that. The demonstration has 
something so overpowering about it, that the pupil 
will try and demonstrate other 
geometrical problems in a similar 
way. The result of this keen 
observation will make him do, 
act, work. Vivid seeing is the 
root of knowledge ; action, its 
increase and application. By 
doing such an example as | of f [I mean, showing it 
by means of an illustration like the one in the mar- 
gin], the child will gain knowledge of fractions, such as 
is not gained by mere 'figuring.' A pupil who thus 
learns is not a passive receptacle of book-wisdom. 
His knowledge is experience ; he is a conqueror, and 
proud of his possessions. Certainly, the seeing alone 
will not create knowledge, nor will the doing alone do 
it; but both together will work miracles. And this 
leads me to the 

"III. Tell. — When a child gains knowledge by keen 
observation and by skilful application, he is bound to 



"o 


1 1 




CO 
1 


1 ! ! 






! 1 I 





TI1E ART OF QUESTIONING. 177 

tell all about it. Like Pallas from the head of Jupiter, 
so a thought formed in the mind wrestles for expres- 
sion. It is bound to be formulated. The proverb has 
it, ' Of what the heart is full, the lips will speak : ' and 
you may as well substitute ' mind ' for ' heart ; ' the 
proverb will hold good. However imperfect the child's 
language may be at first in the attempts at giving 
expressions to indigenous thoughts, the language im- 
proves wonderfully. The mere repetition of something 
committed to memory from the printed page makes 
only thoughtless prattlers ; the more thoughtless, the 
more pretentious the words are that are committed." 

" I like your explanation," said friend C. ; tc and it 
proves very forcibly how necessary is the vast amount 
of explanation and interpretation in the educational 
press. These journals are doing a noble work. We 
are onty just beginning to learn the art of teaching. 
Let us thank our stars that we are permitted to live 
to see it done." 

A PROOF POSITIVE. 

While doing institute work some time ago, I gave 
a lesson in psychology, showing that the assimilation 
of thought progressed more favorably if new ideas 
were linked to previous cognitions, that is, cognitions 
previously acquired ; that there was close affinity 
between certain items of knowledge and the memory, 
while the latter showed a decided hostility to others, 
which, in fine, it rejected as the stomach does cherry- 
stones. Naturally, I spoke less graphically than this, 



178 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

elaborated upon ray theme in philosophic terms, and 
noticed painfully that my words had little, if any, 
effect; they certainly did not strike fire. I found no 
response in the eyes of my audience, some of whom 
seemed slightly bored. 

I paused, laid clown my note-book, and cast about 
for a remedy. And then I had an inspiration which I 
quickly resolved to act upon. I dropped my subject 
44 like a hot poker," as the funny fellow has it, and 
requested the audience to propose a few conundrums 
to me. Some moments passed in hesitation, and then, 
being urged a little by others, a young, sprightly teacher 
asked with a mischievous smile, u Why is a young 
lady like a door-knob? " I knew the answer ; namely, 
u Because she is something to adore." This caused a 
ripple of laughter. I placed this question on the 
board. 

Another of my hearers, a rather wealthy old lady, 
owner of several houses, who had been induced to be 
present at this afternoon's lecture, proposed this : 
"What intimate relations exist between a tenant and 
his landlord ? " — " Parental relations. ' ' A venerable 
gentleman proposed this : ' ' Why is a bald head like 
heaven?" — tC Because there is no dyeing nor parting- 
there." 

Here T closed the list, and now showed that it was a 
handsome young man who remembered most readily 
a conundrum about a young lady ; the landlady" s 
memory was least sluggish in things which related to 
her •" pay- rental " relations; while the old gentleman 



TUE ART OF QUESTIONING. 179 

quickly recalled a conundrum which reflected upon his 
billiard-ball skull. Are not these three facts illustra- 
tive of the psychological maxim I had stated, and 
which I then repeated? (See beginning of this arti- 
cle.) My audience laughed heartily : they understood 
now what I had aimed at. When I took up my theme 
I was listened to with undivided attention, and the 
sparks of comprehension visible in every eye were 
proofs positive of working minds which followed my 
train of thought. My lesson was a success that clay. 



CHAPTER VI. 

AKITHMETIO. 



CHAPTER VI. 

AEITHMETIO. 

HOW TO TEACH FRACTIONS. 

I start with the presumption, that the human mind 
grows in concentric circles, which, I admit, is nothing 
but a presumption ; for Dame Nature is much too 
erratic to permit a 
mathematically 'cor- 
rect expansion in 
every direction. 
Now, I claim an 
average of ninety 
degrees for n u ru- 
bers, alias arithme- 
tic (this consider- 
able portion of the 
child's horizon is 
claimed for argu- 
ment's sake only: it varies with different children). 
And, within this one-fourth of the mental horizon, 
I claim at least ten degrees for calculations involving 
fractional numbers. (See cut.) 

From this rather artificial exemplification we see 
that almost if not every part of arithmetic can, and 
ought to be, taught in the lowest grade of school. 

183 




184 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

We find that most young children know one-half 
and one-quarter. And this knowledge has been gained 
empirically ; for instance, when mothers cut the pie at 
dinner. Where there are several children in a family, 
the younger ones learn the fundamental facts of frac- 
tions from the older children. This knowledge is not 
scientific, the child could not define the term " fraction " 
as yet ; but it is clear enough for our purposes, which 
aim at a harmonious growth in every direction. 

In the second year we introduce a few more frac- 
tions, such as i, -J, J. In the third year we use actual 
weights and measures, allow the pupil to handle them, 
and to " play store." These measures give us oppor- 
tunities of introducing such fractions as f , f , §, f , etc., 
and we are not slow in making use of them. And so 
we go on widening the scope in the succeeding circles. 

The regular instruction in the fundamental rules of 
fractions properly begins in the fifth year of school, 
while in most schools it does not begin till the sixth 
year (C grammar) . 

In the grades in which fractions are taught, illustra- 
tions of various kinds should be applied. I know of 
no better means than colored paper cut in squares of 
about four inches. It costs but a trifle, if the paper is 
bought by the quantity and cut into shape by any book- 
binder or printer. For our purposes the squares would 
be greatly improved if certain lines dividing them into 
thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, etc., were mado 
by perforating the paper. Thus the process of folding 
could be done much more rapidly and accurately. 



ARITHMETIC. 



185 



(a) REDUCTION. 

Reducing to higher and lower terms is done thus : — 

















This illustration is so convincing that it speaks for 
itself. Any child will see the ct true inwardness " and 
the mode of procedure in reduction of fractions, except 
one who cannot see through a barn-door even when it 
is wide open. 

(6) ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 

Adding and subtracting, and the necessary finding 
of a common denominator, is done in the good old- 
fashioned way, supplemented by such illustrations as 
the following : — 

1. Example : Add § and f . 



y 









■ 



















-*; 



_i_5_9_1 l 
+ 6— "B"— Ll 2- 



2. Example : Subtract § from f . 











. 


■'iiyi?M 



"f — "6"' 



186 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

It is obvious, that I can show here only the bare 
outlines of nry mode of procedure ; but I covet an 
opportunity to show it as extensively as I do it in the 
schoolroom. 

(c) MULTIPLICATION. 

Here we have the following cases : — 
3. Example: 3x|= what? 



3xl = i, or2£. 



This answer can be made very obvious by taking two 
of the three fourths of the third sheet, and completing 
the first two squares ; one fourth will be left over. 

4. Example: 3x2f. This explains itself, being a 
repetition of 3 x |, plus 3x2. 

5. Example : f of 2 is also easily illustrated, namely, 
thus : Fold the -two sheets in halves, which gives four 
fourths of two, and 



take three of them. 
Or, fold each whole 




into four equal parts, which gives eight fourths ; then 
take three fourths of the first sheet, and three fourths 
of the second. Both give the same result. 

6. Example : f of f is still easier, as it requires but 
one leaf. First fold it as it is seen in a, then as it is 
seen in b. 



1 1 


|x 




! ■ 




! 







Solution : 



XI- 



12 
2 



_6_— 3. 
10 — 5^ 



ARITHMETIC. 



187 



7. Example : £ of 2f is plainly seen in the follow- 
ing figure. Take three whole sheets, cut off one fourth 
of the third. The arrow across the 2£ indicates f 
of 2§. 

Solution : 




~ 



Y 



3 N/ 93 

4 A - 4 



3 v 11 

4 A 4 



13. — 9 JL 

16 16 



8. Example : 



X 



92 



is a mere repetition of exer 



cises similar to the preceding one, except that it takes 
more whole sheets to illustrate it. 

Solution: 3fx2|=JL 5 xf=- 1 I 2 ] o == 10. 



(C?) DIVISION. 

All examples in division of fractions can be illus- 
trated by means of our paper squares. Take these 
cases : — 

(1) J-f-2; (2) |-2; (3) *+J ; (4) 2+j ; (5) 1\ 

+j: (6)2^1; (7)i+f 



9. Example: J-^2 = ^. It is easily seen, 
that it is the same as taking \ of J. 

10. Example: j-5-2 = §. What is done 
with one-fourth in example 9, is now done 
with three-fourths. 

11. Example: 2-j-J=8. It means 
how many times is J contained in 2 
whole ones? Ans. 8 times. 







; 






: 



tz 



12. Example: 2-r-J = 2f. It means 
how many times are § contained in 2 ? 
Solution : 2 0* §-*-f, or 8-s-3=2§. 



188 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 





13 




E 


xampl 


e : 






















-J-J 



91 _i_ 1 



10. It means how many 
times is J contained in 2|, or |, 
or *£-? Ans. 10 times. 

14. Example: 2|— r-f. It means 
how many times are f of 1 con- 



jj 



tained in 
times. 



2£, I, or -¥? Ans. 3 J 



15. Example : f -j-f . This means how many times 
is § of a whole contained in f of a 
whole ? (It does n ot mean -| of f . ) 
Solve it thus. Divide each strip, 
that is, each fourth, into five equal 
parts, and each fifth of the square 
into four equal parts ; this gives 
us J J and -JJ. Now it is readily seen, that § is con- 
tained in f as many times as 12 is contained in 15, 
namely, 1J times. 



Solution : 



I — if— li- 




The example f of f would be a 
different thing, as is seen from this 
illustration. 
Solution : 



3__9_ 

5 — 20* 



The following illustration serves to make the last 
problem still clearer. 
Here we have three 
strips across, or f of a 
whole ; then we have 
3 vertical strips, or f . The arrows in the third square 
crossing each other indicate | of | = -2 9 o* 




ABITHMETIC. 189 

The reader will please consider, that all the intrica- 
cies of division in fractions cannot be treated in a short 
article like this. What I offer are only the elements. 

Pupils who thus base their knowledge on a firm 
foundation of sense perception, and who are accus- 
tomed to solve problems in reality, not merely in 
figures, obtain a clear insight into fractional numbers, 
and never find difficulty in using fractions. My pupils 
do not "learn " — that is, commit — any rules first, and 
operate according to them afterward, but learn to do 
examples first. With them, rules are the results ob- 
tained from practice, by "seeing, doing, and then 
telling about it." 

HOW TO TEACH PERCENTAGE. 

In my article on fractions, I stated that the child's 
mental horizon grows in concentric circles, and that 
every department of knowledge and science can be, 
and virtually is, taught in the earliest childhood. 
Only, we must well understand that in this the child's 
action is a purely unconscious action : as, for in- 
stance, the child who learns the ideas one-half and 
one-fourth empirically, by seeing a pie cut ; the child 
who learns familiar measures, as pint, quart, pound, 
ounce, yard, empirically, by using them at home, and 
when sent to the grocery on an errand ; the child who 
learns a little later that one-half is equal to five- 
tenths ; the child who learns that he pays six cents 
for the loan of one dollar, and similar things, — lays 
the foundation of all the departments of higher 



190 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

arithmetic quite early, without learning rules such as 
text-books prescribe. 

The axiom, that new cognitions should be linked to 
those previously gained, should be borne in mind 
when attempting to teach percentage. Decimal frac- 
tions are taught by comparing them with vulgar or 
common fractions ; and the main point to be impressed 
is, that the denominators of vulgar fractions may be 
different, while that of decimal fractions is only ten, 
or a multiple of ten. The same relation which is 
found between decimals and common fractions exists 
between expressions couched in the term " per cents." 
and others such as, "One is to five as twenty is to 
one hundred," one being one-fifth of five, and twenty 
one-fifth of one hundred. 

In American schools all over the land, even where 
a more rational idea of grading pupils and their work 
has found an abiding place, the mode of marking on 
the scale of one hundred is not entirely gone out of 
vogue. While I denounce and condemn this mode 
unequivocal^, I would prudently make use of the 
knowledge which the mode conveys. Despite Super- 
intendent Marble's onslaught upon the maxim, " From 
the known to the unknown," I hold that it is better 
to build upon what the pupils know. They know 
that when they miss two words out of ten, their work 
must be marked eighty. They know that when they 
miss one out of twenty-five, they miss one twenty- 
fifth, or four-hundredths, and therefore their work is 
marked ninety-six. 



A RITIIMETIC. 



191 



The expression " per centum," of or from one hun- 
dred, is translated and explained. It is well to intro- 
duce the formal study of percentage with numerous 
questions in mental arithmetic : such as, — 

1. Example: If you lose one out of five copper 
cents, what part of your money do you lose ? Answer, 



one-fifth. Express it on the scale of one hundred, or 
how many hundredths is that? Answer, twenty. In 
order to make this still clearer, I would draw a line, 
divide it in five equal parts, and shade one part. Then 
I would divide the same line in a hundred equal parts, 
thus showing them that one-fifth is equal to twenty 
hundredths or twenty per cent, and that twenty per cent 
is virtually the fraction one-fifth, expressed in higher 
terms. 

2. Example : One-quarter of a 
pie is what per cent of the pie? 
Draw a circle representing the pie, 
divide it into four equal parts. 
(Make the pie large enough on 
the board.) Then divide each 
fourth into twenty-five equal parts, or the whole pie 
into one hundred, therein 7 showing that one-fourth is 
equal to twenty-five hundredths, or twenty-five per 
cent. 

3. Example : Ask, if fifteen of sixty sheep are 
bitten by a vicious dog, and killed, what part of the 




192 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

flock is killed? Clearly, one-fourth. Now, what is 
one-fourth of one hundred? Answer, twenty-five. 
Then the farmer lost twent\-five out of one hundred, 
or twenty-five per cent. 

4. Example : If T buy a watch at eighty dollars, 
and sell it for one hundred, what per cent do I gain? 
I clearly gain one-fourth of what I paid for it, but one- 
fourth of one hundred is twenty-five ; therefore, I gain 
twenty-five of one hundred, or twenty-five per cent. 

These mental questions should be quite numerous. 
In order to facilitate this, I have resorted to the follow- 
ing very plain device, which speaks for itself. 

(The 100 circle is the standard of measurement.) 




ARITHMETIC. 



193 



I draw this figure on the board, and then ask in 
quick succession such questions as : — 

(a) What is five per cent of 240? of 140? of 120? 
of 80? of 20? etc. 

(6) Eight is five per cent of what? 10? 4? 1? 12? 
etc. 

(c) Twenty is what per cent of 200 ? 8 of 80 ? etc. 

There is an immense number of questions for mental 
drill in this device. 

A DEVICE, NOT A METHOD. 

Whether what I am going to describe in this article 
is an original invention, grown on home soil, or not, I 
do not venture to decide ; but I suspect it to be. At 
any rate, — honor to whom honor is due, — the Ham- 
ilton schools are the first in which the invention was 
put into operation. Here is an illustration of the 
device which will aid the explanation. It is called 



NUMERATION BOARD. 




oooooooooo 



oooooooooo 



The board is used in the first and second years of 
school. It consists of a board half an inch thick, 
about a foot wide, and five feet long. Grooves divide 
the surface of the board into four parts. The part on 
the right contains ten small holes, each just large 
enough to put a lead-pencil in. The secoud compart- 



194 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

merit has ten holes, each of which is large enough to 
hold a bundle of ten pencils. The next compartment 
has ten holes, each of which is large enough to contain 
ten bundles of ten, or one hundred each. The fourth 
compartment, the last one on the left, contains only 
one hole, but large enough to contain ten bundles of 
one hundred each, or one thousand. This illustrates, 
better than any thing yet found, the process of numer- 
ation, and we use it thus : — 

The board, being large enough, is placed before the 
class, where it is easily seen by all the pupils ; and the 
teacher has a sufficient number of broom-corn stalks, 
of the thickness of a pencil, about six inches long. 
She calls upon a pupil to fill the ten small holes on the 
right. When that is done, she requires these ten to be 
taken out, bundled together, and fastened by a little 
rubber band. Then the bundle is placed in the first 
hole of the second compartment. This making of ten 
is continued until all the holes of the tens compart- 
ment are filled. In order to break the monotony, such 
exercises as : Two tens are equal to twenty, or are 
called twenty ; four tens, forty ; nine tens, ninety ; 
how many tens in eighty? in fifty? etc., may be wedged 
in. Then the bundles of tens are treated as the single 
stalks were treated; namely, made into bundles, with 
which the holes of the next compartment are filled ; 
and lastly, the hundreds are gathered up to make one 
large bundle of one thousand. 

The progress which the children make in learning to 
numerate is astonishing. After the figures are learned, 



ARITHMETIC. 195 

their relative value, by virtue of position, is explained, 
first, by using naughts to (ill the vacant places, and 
slowly leading on to the fact that the naughts are not 
necessary to be written, and why not. I confidently 
believe that it would be carrying owls to Athens and 
soot to Pittsburgh, to go into a more minute explana- 
tion concerning the manner of using this board ; for 
every teacher of the primary grades will see at once 
the value and utility of this device. 

As to the cost of the board, and where to obtain it, 
I should say, "Do what we did." We applied to a 
carpenter, gave him the dimensions of the board and 
the size of the holes, by furnishing him such bundles 
as would have to fill the holes, telling him to make the 
holes just large enough to hold the single stalks and 
the bundles snugly. The board, being of " half -inch 
stuff," is very cheap. To bore the holes is mere play- 
work, and many a teacher who is skilful with joiners' 
tools can make such a board himself. The carpenter 
makes it for from thirty to fifty cents, according to 
the kind of wood he uses. It is strong, can easily be 
put out of the way by shoving it behind the wardrobe, 
and is light enough to be handled with ease. Instead 
of broom-corn stalks, little sticks may do, provided, of 
course, they are of the same thickness and length. 

Adding and Subtracting. — The board can also be of 
great use in illustrating the first steps in addition and 
subtraction, within the compass of one to one thou- 
sand. For instance : — 

The first case in subtraction, in which each digit of 



196 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TILE DAY 



the subtrahend is smaller than that of the minuend, 
explains itself. For instance : 534 minus 213. The 
second case, where the number of units or tens in the 
subtrahend is greater than that of the minuend, can be 
beautifully illustrated by loosening a bundle of the 
next higher order, and transferring the loosened objects 
to the next compartment to the right, — in short, untie 
a bundle of ten to make ten units. If then you have 




a minuend like the one in the cut (534), place under 
it the subtrahend 356. Now, it is evident that 6 can- 
not be taken from 4, and therefore you take a bundle 
of ten, which, together with the four loose ones, make 
fourteen units. From this six can be easily taken. 
That leaves us two bundles of ten, from which five 
tens cannot be taken. Again we proceed as before 
by untying a bundle of the next higher order, and so 
on ad infinitum. 

We are not selfish here in Hamilton, and do not 
propose to patent the device. We offer it for what it 
is worth to any one who thinks it worth trying. Let 
him try it, and God bless him for his enterprise and 
good-will to his pupils. 



ARITHMETIC. 197 

PRICE-LIST OF COMMODITIES IN THE 
SCHOOLROOM. 

Not long ago I saw a problem on the blackboard, 
in which the price of a cow was called for. Several 
attending circumstances in the question made the 
latter rather involved ; and the answer to the problem 
proved to be, " Price of cow, six cents." That set 
me to thinking. Thought I, "Is it right to thus 
corrupt the child's conception of the eternal fitness 
of things?" I suggested to the teacher, to reserve a 
space of two feet square on her very spacious black- 
board, head it " Price List," and enter upon this space 
a few quotations of prices of commodities, such as 
flour, butter, eggs, pork, beef, and the like, and in- 
duce the pupils to consult the daily papers, in order 
to suggest changes occasionally. Thus, for instance, 
she would find butter quoted between twenty-five and 
thirty-five cents a pound during the winter, and twelve 
and a half to fifteen cents in the summer. She would 
find the price of flour per barrel, to vary between four 
dollars and a half and six dollars, as supply and 
demand dictated. 

This would be an indirect way of giving most useful 
information upon subjects intimately connected with 
the demands of after-life. It would, furthermore, 
establish a valuable and profitable connection between 
home and school. It would make teaching rational 
and practical. It would open the eyes of children to 
the value of money in general, and that of certain 



198 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

commodities in particular. It would enable teacher 
and pupils to make original problems. And all this, 
without special effort and waste of time. It would, 
so to speak, link the school and its daily work, with 
life and its great tasks and demands. 

I was a young boy when I heard one of the greatest 
living teachers pronounce this truth: "Though the 
ship of school lies at anchor in the harbor, far away 
from the turmoil and strife of life, it nevertheless will 
be heaved and rocked by the ripples which are caused 
by the great waves and billows iff the open sea." Let 
us be practical. The problem in which a barrel of 
flour is said to cost five dollars can aid the pupil in 
acquiring arithmetical skill, just as effectually as one 
in which that barrel of flour is quoted at five cents, 
or fifteen cents, or sevent} r -five cents, or sixt}^five 
dollars. Lately, I took occasion to inquire into the 
effect of the procedure suggested, and I found it to be 
very beneficial. I found that one problem put on the 
board served as a model. The numbers were erased, 
and others were substituted, as the fluctuations of the 
market dictated. I found this practice in use, as 
low as the fifth school year, where the pupils had just 
learned the more intricate tables of denominate num- 
bers. I found that the}' knew the current prices of 
various kinds of coffee, of sugar, rice, cheese, flour, 
and the like. But what pleased me most was the 
deep interest shown by the pupils in their work ; for 
interest acts upon the learner, like sunshine and 
moisture upon the vegetable germ in the ground. 



ARITHMETIC. 199 

PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. 

In every branch of study in the curriculum, knowl- 
' 'edge and skill are to be aimed at, particularly in 
arithmetic. My idea is, that the children in the 
lower and lowest grades should gain their knowledge 
in numbers by handling objects. To the young 
child, six and four mean nothing, but six pencils and 
four pencils, balls, sticks, books, papers, etc., convey 
an idea. In other words, things should come before 
their symbols. I have, therefore, advised the fre- 
quent use of splints, toothpicks, lamplighters, buttons, 
etc., which are put into the hands of the pupils for 
the purpose of making arithmetical combinations and 
operations with actual objects. I have procured, at 
a broom-factory, broom-corn stalks, all cut the same 
size, and bundled them up in packages of ten and a 
hundred, in order to have some means of illustrating 
numeration. The teachers of the lower grades — 
bright, intelligent, enthusiastic young ladies— have 
taken up the idea, and procured large button-moulds, 
strung them on wires, and fastened them on the top 
edge of each pupil's desk. This plan works like a 
charm. 

I am prepared to assert, that, when children who 
are thus taught are promoted to higher grades, they 
will not regard arithmetic as a drudgery, but as a 
delightful occupation. From the concrete idea of 
number, they are unconsciously led to the abstract 
idea. And so every branch of study, even the most 



200 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

abstract history, has a solid stratum of concrete knowl- 
edge, gained, or to be gained, by sense perception. 

But there is a wide difference between knowing a 
thing and applying it, between knowledge and skill. ' 
Knowledge results from experience, and after it is 
gained it must be made easily available by constant 
repetition. A child learns to comprehend the multi- 
plication-table by doing (handling objects) ; but the 
memory must be charged with the table, so that it is 
ever ready for use. There can be no question that a 
child may learn the table by dry routine-repetition ; 
but how much more pleasant it is so to learn it, that 
he knows what he is saying and doing ! 

All the fundamental processes in arithmetic can be 
illustrated either by objects, or, when the numbers 
become too large, by sketches drawn on the board. 
I must not indulge in enumerating the many ways in 
which this method may be carried out : space and 
time forbid. 

MISS CELESTE'S PENNIES. 

Miss Celeste Morrison, teacher in the Fourth 
Ward School, Hamilton, showed us one day how she 
taught arithmetic to little ones. They could make 
all combinations possible with numbers up to seven ; 
that is, add, subtract, multiply, and divide. They 
could tell how many twos, threes, there are in six. 
Now she introduced the number seven. One was 
added to the six, and the combinations possible 
within the number seven were then treated. The point 



ARITHMETIC. 201 

brought out was, that a remainder was obtained more 
frequently than with any number below seven. The 
pupils worked with objects, — buttons strung on a wire, 
broom-corn stalks, marbles, pencils, and other things. 

But the brightest feature of the lesson was this : 
She took a little box, in which she had a number of 
one-cent pieces, two-cent pieces, nickel three-cent 
pieces, nickel five-cent pieces; and then followed a 
series of questions, the answers of which had to be 
performed, not only told. For instance : How many 
one-cent pieces will make seven? The child took 
seven one-cent pieces out of the box, and then said 
(always speaking in complete sentences), "Seven 
times one cent are seven cents." Question: "How 
many twos in seven?" The child picked up three 
two-cent pieces and a single cent, saying, "There are 
three twos in seven, and one over." Then three-cent 
pieces were used with which to measure seven. There 
being no four-cent pieces, two two-cent pieces had to 
serve in this case. Then a five-cent piece was applied 
in measuring (dividing) seven. 

This is but a little, insignificant device ; but to see 
the children busily engaged in this manner, seeing, 
doing, and then telling about it, is a pleasure of no 
mean character. Much attention is bestowed, in the 
primary grades of our schools, upon speaking in com- 
plete, well-rounded sentences ; that is, giving answers 
which embrace the questions. This practice will 
inevitably terminate in the habit of correct speech 
and logical speech. 



CHAPTER VII. 

LITEEATUEE AND LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER VII. 

LITEKATUKE AND LANCHTAGE. 
THE POET SCHILLER. 

Oration delivered at the 125th birthday of Friedrich Schiller. 

Ladies and Gentlemen, — I was called upon to 
deliver the oration of the day in English, and I trust 
that it is unnecessary to excuse myself for speaking 
English in America. The founders of this beautiful 
edifice [Music Hall, in Hamilton, 0.,] the members 
of this association, call themselves " German- Ameri- 
cans," using the word " German " merely as an adjec- 
tive, and laying stress on the fact of their being 
Americans: they do not call themselves "American- 
Germans." This remark, I rest assured, is sufficient 
to explain the fact that the oration of the day is deliv- 
ered in the language of the country. 

Men who love the good and the beautiful, and help 
to further it, are worthy of our respect. . Men who are 
enabled by rare talents to accomplish extraordinary 
things, be this in the domain of art, or science, or 
industry, and who apply these natural gifts for the 
benefit of humanity, thereby becoming benefactors of 
their fellow-beings, — such men have a claim upon our 
gratitude, and we are morally obliged to show that we 

205 



206 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

esteem them and value their merits. Men, however, 
who, elevated and supported by their godlike genius, 
have, as it were, imprinted upon their people and their 
era their own signature ; have, with the omnipotence 
of their words, changed the time and entire realm of 
thought of their nation, and have given to their century 
a nobler idea of life and its purposes ; men who speak 
from out of their graves with greater eloquence than 
our contemporaries, — such men are not merely es- 
teemed, they are admired, loved, worshipped. We 
simply refuse to regard them dead. The birthday 
anniversary of such a man it is that we celebrate 
to-day. It is Friedrich Schiller, the favorite poet of 
sixty-five millions of German-speaking people. 

I must, for obvious reasons, refrain from narrating 
to you the events of Schiller's life. Any history of 
literature will furnish you the desired data. It is my 
intention to detain you a few minutes by stating the 
powerful influence of Schiller upon his own and 
following generations. 

So-called wiseacres, who are in the habit of looking 
back into the past, lamenting the fact that the good, 
clear, old times are gone forever, are apt to assert with 
a whining tone that our generation is wanting in poetic 
feeling and comprehension. The very fact that eighty 
years after Schiller's death, his dramas are acted upon 
this stage, four thousand miles away from his birth- 
place, and his poems are studied in the schools of 
America, proves them to be wrong. The same people 
poutingly turn back to the traditions of classic 



LITEBATUBE AND LANGUAGE. 207 

antiquity, and find satisfaction in pointing out to us 
Schiller's frequent references to mythology* They 
forget that Schiller made use of classic forms merely 
to symbolically represent modern ideas. Modern pro- 
gressive thought has constantly to fight with such 
lovers of the dead past. We ask, What is Hercules 
to us? Nothing but a symbolic form for strength. 
What is Apollo to us ? Do we see in him the Grecian 
god? No, nothing but a marvellousl}' perfect and 
beautiful man. Representations of classic antiquity 
ma}* be praised for their ideal beauty, and most of them 
typify thoughts. They have, with us, lost their quality 
as subjects ; they have become attributes. We are not 
called upon to believe in Grecian or Roman deities. 
We are supremely indifferent to them. 

And is not belief, is not faith, is not conviction, the 
very essence of every man's life? Shake a person's 
faith and convictions, and with them falls his whole 
life's purpose. We have every reason to distrust men 
who have no convictions, but only interests. The 
Germans owe it among others to Schiller, that they 
are a nation with lofty ideals, firm convictions, intense 
faith, and strong belief. 

We modern people believe in man's eternal rights, 
in freedom of thought aud action, in the harmonious 
development of the race, in the everlasting and unshak- 
able laws of nature, in the moral foundation of state 
and society, in social equality, and pure justice. Give 
us, ye sculptors, the defenders of equal rights in bronze 
and marble. Erect monuments for the heroes who 



208 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

fought for liberty of thought and action. Paint, ye 
artists, the statesmen who founded our modern states 
upon the basis of social equality and impartial justice. 
Exalt the men. who sacrificed themselves in wrestling 
with Nature till she revealed her secrets. Let us 
praise and exalt the thinkers who found the causal 
nexus between Nature's marvellous laws and man's 
varied actions. Sing, ye poets, of the spiritual heroes 
who gave to posterity ideals of beaut}' and truth. 
These are the saints of modern times and the living 
generation. To these latter-day saints we look up in 
dark and gloomy times. From them we derive our 
strength to carry on the war against the spirits of dark- 
ness. And when sculptors, painters, poets, and authors 
glorify our real heroes, Schiller's form will stand among 
them as one of the greatest of the great. 

Looking back upon Schiller and his era, I cannot 
refrain from mentioning a curious fact, which will tell 
you more than a lecture of two hours' duration. It is 
this : — 

Maj r I ask : When did Shakspeare's wonderful 
genius illuminate the English world of intelligence 
and poetry? It was when the wars between the red 
and white roses had terminated ; when, after the de- 
struction of the Spanish Armada, England had become 
the ruler of the sea ; when, under the gentle but firm 
sway of Queen Elizabeth, England had reached the 
summit of greatness and political development, — then 
it was that this marvellous poetic genius of England 
bloomed forth, a genius whose greatness it took the 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 209 

world almost three hundred }'ears to comprehend. 
Again : When was it that Corneille, Moliere, and 
Racine, Voltaire and Rousseau, charmed the world 
of thought with their classic productions, with poetry 
and philosophy? It was when Louis XIV. and Louis 
XV. reigned over France ; when France was at its 
highest ; when the French armies had been victorious 
on the Continent, and France had reached the pinnacle 
of glory. Again : When did the classic epoch of 
Spanish literature occur, or that of Italy? Again the 
same answer comes : It alwa}s followed a period of 
the greatest national glory. 

And now we ask: When did Schiller live? During 
the second half of the last centuiy, when the political 
life of Germany was humbled into the dust, partly 
by foreign powers, partly by the selfish individual 
interests of over three hundred home-sovereigns ; 
when all national life seemed petrified ; when Napo- 
leon I. rode rough-shod over all that was dear to the 
Germans, and all that, had remained of their political 
independence. Schiller lived and composed during 
the miduight-hour of German history. 

Compare these facts, verified by eveiy — even the 
smallest — text-book of history, and then listen to 
these conclusions. While in every other nation, the 
poets basked in the sunshine of the political greatness 
and splendor of their nation, and glorified their coun- 
try's grand deeds, it fell to the lot of Schiller to act as 
a prophet in Israel : to stir up the people to deeds, to 
arouse the sleeping energy, to awaken anew the 



210 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

crushed sense of patriotism, and spur to efforts upon 
all domains of activity the latent powers of the 
nation. 

This idea must be borne in mind when viewing 
Schiller, the prophet of the German nation. 

Goethe, in his funeral oration at Schiller's tomb, 
said, "He lived as a man, and as a mature man he 
departed from us. In that form in which one leaves 
the earth, he still lives and moves for us in the world 
of spirits. Achilles is, for us, still present as an ever- 
striving youth. That Schiller went away early, is for 
us also a gain. From his tomb there comes to us an 
impulse, strengthening us as with the breath of his 
own might, and awakening a most earnest longing to 
fulfil lovingly, and more and more, the work that he 
began. So, in all that he willed to do, and in all that 
he fulfilled, he shall live on forever, for his nation and 
for mankind." 

In this Olympic funeral oration, Goethe happily 
expressed the characteristic features of Schiller's 
influence, the very essence of Schiller, as we know 
him. I mean his everlasting youth, which never loses 
the strength to beget grand deeds. What other effect 
can it have, than to infuse into the young generation 
enthusiasm of the purest kind, when they hear his 
hero say, — 

" The land is ours, it is our own creation! 
By our own labor, ay, by a thousand claims, 
The land is ours forever ! Shall we bear it, 
That this the emissary of a foreign lord 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 211 

Shall here insult us on our own free soil ? 

Is there no help for us ? Must we, then, hear it ? 

No ! there's a limit to the tyrant's power. 

When men, oppressed, can find no aid on earth 

To rid them of their burden, then they rise ! 

The people rise ; they stretch their hands to heaven, 

And thence fetch down their old eternal rights, 

There shining in the heavens, unchangeable, 

Imperishable as the stars themselves. 

Then Nature's own primeval rule returns; 

Man stands in battle, ready for the foe. 

'Tis our last means; but when others fail, 

We draw the sword ! The best of all life's boons 

We will defend. In front of this our land, 

And of our wives and children, we will stand! " 



The poetic creations of very few select authors, 
possess this never-aging charm. They staud at the 
entrance of new epochs, and formulate with prophetic 
eyes the highest aims and purposes for centuries and 
centuries. These rare minds are the true heroes of 
mankind, because they are its educators. Such a hero 
was Schiller. One may assert without presumption, 
says a German authority, that never since Homer had 
arisen another poet who was so much of an educator 
of his people. To him, who had risen with such 
unexampled energy from the most unruly naturalism 
to the most ideal artistic form, I say. to him the 
younger generation in Germany, ever since the ap- 
pearance of " Wallenstein," has looked up as to a 
being of higher, nobler kind. Departing, he left as 
a valuable inheritance " Wilhelm Tell," a drama 



212 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

which has proven of more than mere literary impor- 
tance. During the clays of doom, when Napoleon's 
policy was aimed at the annihilation of Germany, and 
seemed to be destined to be crowned with success ; at 
a time when a patriot like Stein could not lind a square 
foot of German soil to stand on ; at a time when a 
poet of great promise, a man of genius and heart, 
Heiiirich von Kleist, preferred suicide to a life of 
national misery and unutterable humiliation ; at a time 
when Germans were obliged to fight against Germans 
like bands of gladiators, and fertilized the soil of all 
the countries, from the Tajo to the Volga, with their 
blood, — it was at this time of oppression, miseiy, 
and disgrace, that the Germans found consolation 
in "Tell." 

Their patriotic feeling, their energy, their courage, 
their hatred of tyranny, were kindled, and henceforth 
asserted themselves. For a person who has eyes to 
see, Schiller's name is found on every page of that 
proud history of war, which began at the Katzbach, 
and terminated at Waterloo. Even to-day, Schiller's 
words as found in " Tell" are the catch-words in the 
great drama of life ; and wherever great deeds are 
done by Germans, you will find the secret motives 
happily expressed in words of Schiller. For, I repeat 
it, it is the power of youth, which, never dying, never 
loses the ability to engender deeds. 

Great as Schiller was in the dramatic art, he was 
equally great as a lyric poet. No German poet since 
Schiller has equalled his magnificent rhythm and rhet- 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 213 

oric. The language has been made sweeter, clearer, 
more flexible ; it has been forced to reflect the 
manner of many new minds : yet in the qualities I 
mentioned, rhythm and rhetoric, Schiller is still the 
climax of performance. The tenderest strains, the 
most beautiful harmonious verses, ever composed in 
German, are Schiller's. A few metric translations 
may prove this : — 

" The minds of men, in a perpetual strife, 
Revolve from age to age, and find no rest; 
While Xature, in unfading youth and beauty, 
Obeys one everlasting law of duty. 
Upon her constant bosom, ever green, 
Beneath her sky of never-fading blue, 
Lived all the generations who have been, 
And still her children find her fresh and new. 
And the same sun, that o'er some Grecian hill 
Homer beheld, is shining on us still." 

And now, after having seen how lovingly his eye 
rests on mother Nature, listen to this description of 
the heavens. 

" ELYSIUM. 

" Gone is the wail and the torture ! 
Elysium's banquets of rapture 
Chase every shadow of woe ! 
Elysium seeing 

Endless the bliss and endless the being, 
As musical brooks through the meadows that flow. 
May is eternal, 

Over the vernal landscape of youth: 
The hours bring golden dreams in their races, 
The soul is expanded through infinite spaces, 



214 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

' The veil is torn from the visage of Truth. 
Here, never a morrow 
The heart' s full rapture can blight ; 
Even a name is wanting to sorrow, 
And pain is only a gentler delight." 

Can any thing be more beautiful than this descrip- 
tion of the heavens, where " even a name is wanting 
to sorrow, and pain is only a gentler delight " ? 

The real value and the immense circumference of 
Schiller's genius cannot be fully understood until we 
approach it with mature mind. The man, who, ripe 
in mind and judgment, returns to Schiller's works, 
will soon admire and love him. All his lofty words, 
which sound and re-echo in our ears like sweet remem- 
brances of youth, assume shape and form, and grow 
in importance. Schiller not only proposed the educa- 
tion of his people to idealism, but he actually began it 
by his poetic creations. He gave his nation, he gave 
to humanit}-, a loftier ideal of beauty, greatness, truth, 
and justice. When Goethe said with pride, "He was 
ours," we are justified in saying, " He still is ours." 

Ma} r our German-American youth study Schiller, 
and may the sublime ideas of this wonderful poet 
find their way into their imaginations and their hearts, 
and there create that longing for purity in thought and 
action, which alone will lift them to a higher level of 
existence. It will not make the young generation any 
less American than it is ; for beauty, truth, and virtue 
are not national, but belong to mankind and the whole 
world. And old men, covered with the mimic snow 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 215 

of age, may they again turn to the dusty volumes of 
Schiller's works, and read of his prophecies and far- 
reaching truisms, and they will find consolation for 
the rest of their lives. It is not the dead that speaks 
to us : it is the immortal spirit of Germany's greatest 
poet. And as we are here assembled to commemorate 
the event of his birth, let us resolve to keep his mem- 
ory alive, and refuse to regard him dead. 

A PERTINENT QUESTION. 

AN ADDRESS. 

Why is it that native Americans, as well as English- 
men, find it so extremely difficult to acquire another 
language? I do not mean, learning to handle a few 
words or phrases, such as, " Je ne le sais pas," 
"Bon jour," " Ausgespielt," " Wie geht's?" or 
"Nix kumm 'raus," and the like, but really acquire 
thorough knowledge of another language, body and 
soul, idiom and all, and use it conveniently in rapid 
conversation. Why is it? Some have said, the 
tendency to "show and glittering results" prevents 
the American people from employing the necessary 
hard labor and study which are requisites of linguistic 
study. But I do not believe this ; for in other direc- 
tions the mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman 
races shows a zeal and perseverance that far out- 
shine those of other nations. 

Why is it, on the other hand, that the Russians, 
in fact all Slavic races, of whom we know that they 



216 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT. 

lack the culture, refinement, and high degree of 
intelligence, which adorn the Germanic and Romanic 
races, — why is it that they, of all European nations, 
learn other idioms most easily, nay, with fabulous 
ease and accuracy? Why is it, that the Germans, 
second in rank, have such a prominent linguistic 
talent ? 

There have been scores of answers to this question, 
one even more absurd than the other. I will not 
repeat them. The answer I wish to give, I believe, 
comes nearer the truth than most others that I have 
heard. It was suggested to me by a gentleman who 
is in the enviable possession of seven languages, all 
of which he speaks with ease and accuracy. It is 
this : — 

Every one whose mother tongue is difficult to learn 
and to use, on account of its wealth of forms, that is, 
of different forms of inflection, and for other reasons, 
will necessarily acquire a linguistic training in early 
youth, which will enable him to grasp other idioms 
without great efforts. Let us briefly consider a few 
points: pronunciation, syntax, and inflection. Slavic 
languages have sounds, and combinations of sounds, 
that make Englishmen and native Americans fairly 
quiver when hearing them pronounced. If the latter 
be called upon to repeat a Russian, Bohemian, or 
Magyaric sentence, he simply calls it an outrage to 
his smooth and well-polished English tongue. I 
have particular reference to the consonants of these 
lauomases. 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. . 217 

We find it natural that people like the Russians 
find little difficulty in pronouncing the comparatively 
easy consonants of the English language, — save the 
slippery th, which is too much even for a Russian. 
On the other hand, the Russians find it difficult to 
pronounce the English vowels. For English is very 
rich in vowels. Where other laiisfuasjes have but one 
a, and only varying it in length, — ah, and a, — the 
English language has as many as seven, and so on 
with the remainder. How much influence this fact 
has upon an American in learning German, you can 
observe by the pronunciation of a word like " danke." 
By some nrysterious process, it becomes "donkey." 
As we know of people who are color-blind, I think 
there must be people who are deaf to certain 
sounds. 

Take the easy English syntax. Why, you may 
begin a sentence in English, and hardly know how to 
construct it to give full expression to your thought ; 
you may be sure 3011 will reach the end conveniently, 
without being obliged to repeat parts of it. This is 
chiefly due to the most excellent rule : Place the verb 
as near the subject as you can, — a rule of which 
almost the opposite is true in German. Here is an 
example. While in English you say, "Mrs. Hall 
would be pleased to see Mr. York at her residence 
to-morrow afternoon, if possible, immediately after 
services," this would have to be rendered in German 
construction : "Mrs. Hall would be pleased Mr. York 
to-morrow afternoon at her residence, if possible, after 



218 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

services, to see." And this is not a very complex 
example. 

You will easily see, how much more complicated the 
arrangement of the members of a sentence must be in 
consequence of this requirement : In case a compound 
tense is used, the participle or infinitive must come last 
in the sentence. It necessitates, that the speaker must 
think the whole sentence over, before he begins it ; or 
that, if he begins it before it is completely developed in 
his mind, he must bear in mind the detached part of 
his verb, and utter it when its time comes. In Eng- 
lish you may well afford to begin expressing your 
sentence before you have fully developed it. It is 
like putting up a frame building : first put up your 
joists and scantling, then clapboards, siding, sills, etc. 
First put up subject and predicate, the main element 
of a sentence, and then attach as man}- phrases and 
clauses for ornament's sake as you like. 

This makes speaking easy, and this, too, is one rea- 
son why England and America have so many world- 
renowned orators. Now, it has been alleged, that what 
is said in such a convenient language could not be so 
profound as that which had to struggle hard to come 
to light. We find this to be untrue if we consider the 
well-known fact, that one of the few creative geniuses 
of the world, perhaps the greatest of all, Shakspeare, 
spoke no other language than his exquisite, homespun 
English. 

But the convenience the English language affords 
will unquestionably be the reason of its spreading over 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 219 

more and more ground, and in some future time be- 
coming the language of the globe. For, the very 
qualities which the philologist of to-day may consider 
defects, will prove to be advantages over all other 
languages. 

If English could only be freed of its outrageous 
orthography, almost every thing else in English is easy ; 
and this very fact proves my argument to be correct. 
For the German, even if he be a thorough scholar, will 
find English spelling a stumbling-block. The English- 
man and native American, on the other hand, will ever 
find German spelling of trifling difficulty ; for the Ger- 
mans write, with a few insignificant exceptions, what 
they pronounce. German is veiy nearly a phonic 
language. 

The most important branch of German grammar, 
however, is not pronunciation, nor is it orthography, 
nor even syntax. It is etymology, or, as I will term 
it here, inflection. This is really the stumbling-block, 
not only of non-German-speaking students, but even 
of the Germans themselves. While there are in thou- 
sands of nouns in German four distinct cases, expressed 
by a shading of the word in each particular case, there 
are no cases at all in English nouns, for the posses- 
sive s is cunningly separated from the word by an 
apostrophe. You say, " the man, of the man, to the 
man, and the man," — it remains man, in whatever 
case 3'ou may use it ; while in German it is " der Mann, 
des Mamies, dem Mamie, den Mann, die Manner, der 
Manner, den Mdnnern, die Manner." 



220 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Furthermore, in German not only nouns are declined, 
but adjectives, every imaginable kind of pronouns, 
articles, nay even some numerals. In English all 
these things are more or less omitted. Did 3'ou ever 
think how difficult it would be, if in English you 
had to vary the forms of the adjective before the 
noun? I could easily imagine your disgust if you had 
to do it. Let us try it. You have to drink colcles 
water, to bathe in coldem water, to admire the fresh- 
ness of colden ivaters, and admit that colcles water is the 
-best beverage. 

Or, suppose you were obliged, in speaking English, 
to decline all the pronominal adjectives. You would 
have to have as many forms of the possessive pro- 
nouns as the Germans, namely, thirty-two, where now 
you have eight. Or, think for a moment of the class 
which the chapter of gender affords the observing eye ; 
a chapter which is the most unruly you can think of. 
Thank your stars that you have nothing to compare 
with it ! * 

Or, please, imagine for a moment, you were to follow 
up the German conjugation to its fullest extent. Sup- 
pose that you would have to say, in conjugating 
" may," for instance, " I may, I might, I have might, 
I had might, I shall may, I shall have might." And 
now the subjunctive : " I maye, I mighte, I may have 
might, I might have might, I shall maye, I shall have 
might." This, of course, is all conjecture. Don't 
you think you have every reason to be thankful for 
not being obliged to do so? German etymology 



LITER A TV HE AND LANGUAGE. 221 

alone is enough to frighten the adult student from 
studying it. 

Whether it is preferable to have so many different 
forms for one word, whether this will promote think- 
ing, I will leave out of consideration here. But it is 
a fact, that a great deal of talent, skill, study, and 
exercise is needed to master all these many difficulties. 
The child whose mother-tongue is so difficult, as I have 
stated, trains its mental faculties, or- rather, its linguis- 
tic faculties, by trying to master these difficulties. 

I am inclined to think that this struggling with the 
language is helping the mind in its development won- 
derfully. But this assistance is denied the English- 
speaking child. It grows up, stringing its words 
together like beads, or rather, building its sentences 
of unhewn stones, which (queer enough) alwa}^ fit ; 
while the German-speaking child Is obliged to hew and 
fit the blocks before using them. 

It is unquestionable, that linguistic talent is not 
developed where it is not exercised. We need not 
go to Darwin to hear that a talent, once strongly 
expressed in a minority of the race, seems to grow, 
till in the course of several centuries it becomes at last 
a striking feature of the nation. Nay, in our own 
families we can remember incidents that bear witness 
to the truth of this natural law. 

In short, whoever has a difficult, finely organized 
mother- tongue, and has been successful in mastering 
it (I mean to say this in Italics : who has been success- 
ful in mastering it), will find, it costs him almost no 



222 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

effort to learn auother idiom, and even two or three ; 
and wherever the mother-tongue flatly denies early 
linguistic training, there the learning of another idiom 
is (especially in later years) a task beyond the strength 
of the one who undertakes to perform it. Do you 
know of a grown person who learned a second lan- 
guage after his twenty-fifth year of age? He may 
have learned a little of it, but he certainly did not 
master it. 

It is not my intention to anno}' the reader with many 
conclusions that may be drawn from these statements, 
— only one. If children of English-speaking parents 
(I do not say American parents, for that term covers 
many more) are to study German, let them begin when 
young. 

I might stop here, but it occurred to me, you might 
probably ask, If the Germans are really so much of 
a linguistic people, why is it that so many Germans 
in this country will, for instance, ask you to take a seat 
on the fire ; or tell you it is five minutes behind twelve 
o'clock; or assert that one thing is quite "extinct" 
from another ; or pronounce the smooth and beautiful 
sound th as harsh as a tt ? 

There are two answers to this query: (1) They 
began too late, after the organs of speech had lost 
their pliability, after the mind had developed so many 
other talents, that the linguistic germ had been stifled ; 
after their memory had grown strong in retaining other 
matters, and had become unfit for retaining linguistic 
matter. (2) They are not successful in learning Eng- 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 223 

lish, because they never mastered their own (German) 
language. I have tried to demonstrate how enormous 
the number of difficulties is, that are to be surmounted. 
They come with no other instruction than that which 
a village or country school can afford them, and besides 
speak their simple and uninflected dialect, instead 
of' the finely organized High German of the educated 
classes of society. The German who never mastered 
his own language fully, of course, must be left out 
of consideration. 

GERMAN IN THE SCHOOLS. 

In many places in the West, German is taught in 
the lower schools. Being called upon to express my 
opinion on the question why that should be done, I 
answered as follows : — 

I cannot refrain from alluding to an objection which 
is often raised to the introduction of German in the 
public schools. It is said, that this is America ; that 
the national language is the English language, and 
that it should be the language of the whole people ; 
that the duty of the German people is to learn the 
English language, etc. These assertions are not men- 
tioned here that they may be controverted. No one 
thinks of denying them. Still we cannot say of the 
people of America as yet, that it is a homogeneous 
nation. One of the greatest American writers says, 
" The American composite character betrays its mixed 
origin ; every thing American is a fusion of distant 
and antagonistic elements. The language is mixed ; 



224 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

the currents of thought are as cosmopolitic as are the 
elements of its people." 

However, that .need not concern us. We grant that 
the English language should be, if it is not as yet, the 
national language. But because it is the social and 
political duty that immigrants should learn this lan- 
guage as soon as possible after their arrival on the 
■shores of America, because it should be taught to 
the children as the language of their country, seems 
to be no reason why the attention of our schools should 
be confined exclusively to it. There is an education, 
development of mind, and discipline of the intellect, 
in the study of a foreign language, which we ought 
to covet for our children, if it can be had by any 
justifiable means. 

"Among the modem languages," says Dr. Rickoff, 
"there is no other one that can be studied with so 
great a profit by the English-speaking child. German 
would be chosen by the philologist as shedding most 
light on the formation, force, and use of our own, the 
English. It would be chosen by the scientist as con- 
taining the richest treasures accumulated by the study 
and research of man. Furthermore, it is immediately 
available in the business intercourse of large masses 
of people, in the social intercourse of the German 
people among themselves, and between German par- 
ents and their children. Finally, inasmuch as the 
German people are to be found at the great centres 
of population in vast numbers, and inasmuch as then- 
number is destined to increase infinitely, and inas- 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 225 

much as their children will learn the language of their 
mothers besides the English, we have but to perfect 
their knowledge of German in the public schools, to 
keep open a broad and deep channel through which 
the literature, the science, the art, of a people who 
know no superiors in an} 7 line of intellectual develop- 
ment, mechanical skill, or aesthetic culture, may be 
turned to account for the benefit of our national pros- 
perity and culture." 

Now, we well know that in the crucible it is invari- 
ably the precious metal which takes longest to dissolve. 
"VVe find on the lists of criminals, and other scum of 
society, a number of German names. If we inquire 
into these cases, we find, as I did in the police-courts 
and jails of Cincinnati and Cleveland, that such per- 
sons are the children of German parents who gave up 
their language, regarding it rather as an obstacle, and 
neglecting to teach it to their children. They have 
proven base metal in the composition. These parents, 
who could barely make themselves understood in Eng- 
lish, threw away a priceless treasure, were ridiculed 
by their worthless children for the poor English they 
spoke, hence lost hold upon their children's budding- 
characters, and soon found their control gone. And, 
on the other hand, look upon the astonishing prosper- 
ity of German families in which the German language 
is kept alive like a holy fire ; see what well-behaved 
children they raise, and notice the unmistakable influ- 
ence of the mother-tongue as an educational factor. 
If for no other reason, German should be temporarily 



226 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

kept up for that alone. The English language does not 
suffer under it. The children breathe it with the air ; 
moreover, the study of the German assists the children 
in acquiring a thorough knowledge of the English. 

Of course there will be a time when German immi- 
gration ceases, and the present generation vanishes ; 
and then German may be found unnecessary as a 
medium of culture and education. There can be no 
doubt, that, in the " battle for existence " between the 
two languages, English will survive as the "fittest," 
being the easier of the two. 

But, however strong or weak other arguments may 
be in favor of German in the public schools, there is 
one which should put the question definitely at rest. 
It is, that, by the introduction of German into the 
public schools, the children of German parentage are 
drawn into them, and they learn to speak the English 
language correctly and purely ; and, growing up with 
the children of English-speaking parentage, they be- 
come one with them in patriotic devotion to American 
institutions. This is an argument which I wish to 
emphasize particularly. Private schools of all descrip- 
tions, in which the English language, and American 
history, and patriotism naturally take back seats, would 
flourish if we had not wisely drawn the German school 
population into our public schools, — "the crucible 
within which all nationalities are fused into one homo- 
geneous nationality, — the American." German in the 
public schools does not tend so much to Germanize 
America as it does to Americanize the Germans. 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 227 

Having clearly stated what the object is, it is an 
easy matter to answer the query, to what extent the 
German language should be taught. There should 
be no sham of any kind in the schools. Whatever is 
done in school should be done well or not at all. We 
should teach German as thoroughly and completely as 
any other branch of study. But our schools are, and 
needs must be, " elementary schools." The very name 
of our schools gives an indication of what is done in 
them. We do not try to make our pupils master any 
branch of study ; that would be a presumption : but 
we intend to thoroughly acquaint them with the ele- 
ments and rudiments, and to train them in the ready 
application of these elements. 

One more point, and then I will close. Figures show 
that the pupils studying German are not only not 
retarded in their English studies, but that a larger 
proportion pass the examination for promotion than 
of those who study English only. These statistics 
were compiled by non-German gentlemen, supervisors 
and superintendents of schools in Ohio and other 
W r estern States, and will be furnished if desired. The 
subject of "German in the public schools" has an 
interesting feature if viewed from a business stand- 
point. If German were abandoned to-day below the 
high school, we should not save a dollar to the com- 
munity, because our so-called German-English teachers 
are not supernumerarii, but regular class-teachers, who 
devote, at an average, no more than one-third of their 
time to German in each class. The remaining two- 



228 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

thirds are given to the English studies. Now, if Ger- 
man below the high school costs nothing in money, 
and only about forty-five to sixty or ninety minutes 
a day in time, there seems to be no reason for objec- 
tion whatever. 

THE VALUE OF GRAMMAR. 

It is perhaps well to worry our pupils as little with 
grammar as possible, and, instead, give them more 
instruction in language. It is my idea, and I am 
happy to say not mine alone, that a child should first 
learn to think in a language, before it is obliged to 
think about the language, that is, about its construc- 
tion. But dispensing with grammar altogether is 
pouring out the child together with the bath. For 
grammar' is the logic of the elementary school; that 
is to say, what logic is to the higher and highest 
schools, that grammar is to our elementary schools. 
It offers opportunity for defining, classifying, and 
distinguishing, which will train the child in correct 
thought. To make a correct statement, is by no means 
so easy a thing to the average man or woman as seems 
desirable ; and a little grammar will assist in learning 
to do that. But I mean a little, a very little grammar, 
will suffice. Grammarians are apt to enhance the 
importance of this branch of study by claiming that 
the leading object of the stud}' of English grammar is 
to teach the correct use of the English language. 
This is wrong. Prof. Whitney of Yale College, the 
greatest linguist of America to-day, pronounces it " an 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 229 

error, one which is gradually becoming removed, giv- 
ing way to the sounder opinion that grammar is the 
reflective study of language, for a variety of purposes, 
of which correctness in writing is only one and a sec- 
ondary, or subordinate one, by no means unimportant, 
but best attained when sought indirectly. One must 
be a somewhat reflective user of language, to amend 
even here and there a point by grammatical reasons ; 
and no one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good 
one by applying the rules of grammar to what he 
said." And Herbert Spencer remarks, ''There can 
be little question that good composition is far less 
dependent upon its laws than upon practice." 

POLYGLOT ENGLISH. . 

The polyglot nature of the English language makes 
it very difficult for the pupils of this country to learn 
the language as it ought to be understood after eight 
or twelve years of study. The want of consistency 
in the language is perfectly appalling ; and many, many 
words, polysyllabic in the bargain, stand like great, 
erratic blocks, literally without organic foundation 
such as a root. It is well known to the psychologist, 
that new cognitions are readily learned and willingly 
retained if linked to previous cognitions. How a child 
is to link the word conflagration with fire, however, is 
very difficult to conceive ; while in German it is Feuer 
and Feuersbrunst. Prohibition, hypocritical, convales- 
cence, magnanimity, metaphysical, incomprehensibility, 
and scores of other words, offer the same difficulty. 



230 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

Some words like intimidation are more easily learned 
and understood. This word " intimidation " is traced 
back to intimidate, first, and that again is traced back 
to timid. There the child has a root to go to, a 
fountain-head, so to speak. But how few are the 
words of Latin, Greek, and French origin, that can 
thus be traced back ! How many, many applications 
are necessary before the child can comprehend the 
word humanity or humanitarianism ! If the word had 
consistently grown out from the Anglo-Saxon words 
man and friend, and had been built up somewhat in 
this shape, " men-friendliness " (the very translation of 
humanity) , even very young children could understand 
it instantly. This jumping from one compartment of 
the language to another retards the progress the child 
makes, or ought to make ; because the compartments 
are connected by no apertures, except such through 
which learned linguists can creep, who will trace back 
Latin, French, German, and English, to Sanscrit and 
more ancient Aryan languages. 

The child learns the word dog, and has a very clear 
idea as to its meaning. However, if it is to express 
any thing as dog-like, or pertaining to dogs, it must 
reach into the Latin compartment of the English lan- 
guage, and there find canine. And so I could go on 
ad infinitum, all through Webster or Worcester, much 
to the disgust and enlightenment of teachers ; but I 
should be obliged to write a book on language alone, 
and I have done that too often not to know the penalty 
connected therewith. 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 231 

"A little Latin, however, is a fine thing;" and a 
little can be learned by anybody, young or old, suf- 
ficient to make him understand the English language 
better. Thus, for instance, I should suggest to teach 
the meaning of Latin prefixes, such as ab, ad, con, de, 
clis, ex, ih, inter, pre, pro, re, sub, trans. They may 
be treated as is done in our schools and in Cincinnati. 
The following examples are taken from a pamphlet 
prepared by the teachers of the intermediate schools 
of Cincinnati four years ago. 

Ab. 

Signifies from or away. 

Abduct, to lead from. Abstain, to keep from. 
Abstract, 1 to draw from, divert, to turn from. 
A&ject, a&solve, absorb. 

Signifies to. Ad - 

Adhere, to stick to. Ascribe, to write or impute to. 
.Adduce, to lead to or bring forward. Attract, to draw to. 
Adjoin, allude, announce, accord, accede. 

Con. 
Signifies together or with. 

Concede, to agree with ; to yield. Contract, to draw together. 
Concur, to run together. Connect, to lie together. 
Concord, confer, compel, collusion. 

De. 
Signifies down or from. 

Deduce, to lead or draw from. Describe, to write down. 
Detract, to draw from. Detain, to hold/row*. 
Dejected, defer, delude, denounce, decapitate, decry. 

1 Abs. —The form of a prefix is often changed so that its final 
sound may unite easily with the root. Thus ab becomes abs in 
extract and abstain; a in avert. Ad becomes a in ascribe; at in 
attract; al in a/lure; an in announce; and ac in accord. 



232 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT 



Dis. 

Signifies to take away, from, off, or out; not ; asunder. 
Dishonest, not honest. .Discover, to take the cover off. 
Disarm, to take away arms. Distract, to draw asunder. 
Discord, dispel, discourage, disloyal. 

Ex. 

Signifies out, out of. 

Expei, to drive out. Educe, to lead out. 

.Extract, to draw out. Eject, to throw out. 

Exceed, excess, elude, enunciate, educate, export, excursion. 

In. 

Signifies in or into ; on or upon ; not. 

Incursion, a running in. Induce, to lead into. 

Inscribe, to write upon. Inject, to throw into. 

Inactive, insane, ignominious, immoral, irregular, iflegal, 

import. 

Inter. 

Signifies between or among. 

Intercede, to go between. Interjection, a word thrown be- 
tween. 

Interlude, a play between. Interpose, to place between. 
Intermix, intersect, intervene, interview. 

Pre. 

Signifies before. 

Precede, to go before. Precursor, one who runs before ; a 
forerunner. 

Predict, to tell before, to foretell. Prelude, a play before. 
Prefer, prefix, prevent. 

Pro. 

Signifies for, forward, forth, or out. 
Proceed, to go/orward. Produce, to lead forth. 
Propel, to drive forward. Pronoun, for a noun. 
Proscribe, project, provoke, protract, prolong. 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 233 

Re. 

Signifies back or again; anew. 

.Recede, to go back. .Remember, to bring back to mind. 

.Repel, to drive back. Reject, to throw back. 

.Reduce, refer, reform, repulse, reconquer, retake, remake. 

Sub. 
Signifies under, up. 

(Subscribe, to write under. Support, to uphold. 

Sustain, to bear up. Suffer, to undergo; to allow. 

Suspend, subtract, succeed. 

Trans. 

Signifies across ; over; through. 

Transfer, to carry over from one person or place to another. 
Transport, to carry oi-er from one place to another. 
Transcribe, to write oi-er ; to copy. Transmit, to send over. 
Transform, translate, transgress. 

MISUSED WORDS. 

The following examples are frequently touched up 
in the schools of Cincinnati. The teachers of the 
intermediate grade found it desirable to print a little 
pamphlet, a few years ago, which proved of great 
assistance to many teachers. I quote from it : — 

Invent. To contrive something not in use before. 

Discover. To reveal that which existed before, but was 
unknown. Bell ''invented" the telephone; Columbus 
"discovered" America. Discover, to uncover. 

Teach. To give instruction. 

Learn. To receive by instruction; to become experienced. 

Educate. To lead out and train the faculties of the mind. 

Instruct. To furnish the mind with knowledge. 



234 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Love. To have affection for. We " love " a mother, a father, 
etc. 

Like. To be pleased with. We " like " a picture, good music, 
etc. 

Respectfully. In a polite manner and with esteem. 

Respectively. Applying individually to a group or a series. 
Example. — I would "respectfully" ask, etc. Yours 
"respectfully.'" Animals associate " respectively " each 
with its kind. The Northern and the Southern trains 
leave at 8 A. m. and 8 p. m. "respectively." 

Emigrant. One who leaves a country to settle in another. 

Immigrant. One who enters a country to settle. 1 

Character. The " character " of a man is what he really is. 

Reputation. The "reputation" of a man is what people say 
of him. A man whose character is not good may, 
nevertheless, have a fair reputation. 

Balance. That which is added to make an equality. 

Remainder. That which is left after the removal of a part. 
Example. — The "balance" of an account. The "bal- 
ance" of power. The "remainder" of the company; 
the " remainder " of the week. 

Expect. Is often used incorrectly in sentences that refer to the 
past or the present: as, I "expect" he returned to New 
York; I "expect" John is sick. Use in such sentences, 
think, believe, or siqipose. "Expect" is to look out for, 
and, hence, always refers to the future; as, I "expect" 
good news within a week. 

Artist. One skilled in any of the fine arts. 

Artisan. One who has some mechanical employment. 

Common. Belonging alike to more than one. 

Mutual. Proceeding alike from each of the two parties con- 
cerned. Example. — He is our "common " friend. The 
two. friends gave a "mutual " pledge. 

1 Abbreviation and corruption of "Ex-migrant" and "In-migrant." 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 235 



A PRACTICAL COMPOSITION LESSON. 

There are teachers who think every thing must be 
taught by rote and rule. They are apt to forget the 
great educational force of habit and example. One 
day I attached to one of my examination questions, 
something like this : " Give the answer in the form of 
a letter." The teacher protested, saying the pupils 
had not been taught to write letters yet ; it was un- 
just to ask this. u And when will they be taught 
letter-writing?" I inquired. Answer. — " Why, let- 
ter-writing is one of the special features of the lan- 
guage course in the C intermediate grade." — "Then 
I must understand that you interpret the course to say 
that below that grade no letter-writing is to be done, 
and that you attribute to the author of that course 
so much short-sightedness as to think that only the 
pupils who reach the sixth year of school should at 
all be taught to write letters? What will the great 
number of pupils do who leave the school before they 
reach the C intermediate? Will not they swell the 
great mass of ignorance ; or, as they are properly 
called, the great army of the unwashed? Remember 
that we have frequently occasion to deplore, in order 
not to use the term ' ridicule,' the execrable notes sent 
us by many parents of our pupils ; fault}' in form, 
in spelling, in expression, in logic, in all and every 
thing ; and would you then doubt the necessity of early 
training#in letter-writing? " 

Of course the teacher was sensible enough to admit 



236 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

the necessity. And now we devised a plan of making 
the exercise of letter-writing as little laborious as could 
be done. We agreed to do this : To put a letter on 
the board, and leave it there for several days, perfect 
in form as regards date, heading, paragraphing, and 
signature. This was to be copied by the pupils fre- 
quently, on slate or paper. After a few clays, one or 
more particulars of the letter should be changed so 
that the truth impressed itself upon the child's mind, 
that, whatever the contents of the letter might be, its 
form remained the same. 

More than one-half of what the child gains in school 
is gained by habit and example. If such a standard 
form as suggested were exhibited, our children would 
not enter the high school unable to write a simple note 
or letter. To be able to write letters, is one of the 
requisites of a business man ; in fine, no man or 
woman, however humble his or her station in life, 
should be left unacquainted with business forms. The 
example set by this one teacher has had good results. 
It was soon followed by other teachers ; and at present 
letter-writing is practised at intervals in all the grades 
of our schools above the lowest primary grades. It 
is another illustration of the ancient saying, " Non 
scJiolae set vitae discendum est." 

SPELLING TAUGHT RATIONALLY. 

Oral spelling in chorus, or by individual pupils, 
seems to me sheer waste of time. We do not learn 
to write orthographically by oral spelling. The way 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 237 

to learn to spell (write correctly), is not to spell (to 
separate the letters orally). Spelling is an old Anglo- 
Saxon word, and means splitting. In some parts of 
Germany, the ancient homestead of the Angles and 
Saxons, the people still u spell holz" (split wood). 
The " Practical Teacher" is right in saying, "Oral 
spelling is not spelling : it is the oral description of a 
written word ; it helps spelling as oral descriptions 
help drawing and making. Most oral spelling is a 
terrible waste of time." 

What, then, is to be put in place of oral "word- 
splitting " ? I maintain that words, like human beings, 
have physiognomies. A person whom we pass on the 
street, merely glancing at him, will scarcely be remem- 
bered by us, though he may be described to us by 
others who know him intimately. However minute 
this oral description may be, in the absence of the 
person we are unable to form a vivid picture of his 
face and form in our memory ; in other words, we can 
not recall him. 

On the other hand, if we have met that same person 
frequently, if we have looked at his features atten- 
tively, if we have noticed him smile, speak with ani- 
mation, — in short, if we have had occasion to study 
the face, either intentionally or without intent, — it is 
not likely to escape our memory agaiu. The person 
can easily be called up in our memory ; and if we 
were skilful artists, we might produce a likeness on 
paper on short notice. Now let us suppose the person 
possessed a peculiar feature, such as a big scar on his 



238 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

cheek, or a wart on his nose, or a very low forehead, 
or a receding chin, or pretty dimples, or what not, 
it will not be necessary to see him often ; this very 
peculiarity that struck our .attention will indelibly 
imprint a likeness of the face upon our memory. 

Now, it is exactly so with learning orthography. 
Each word has a physiognomy. Some words have 
plain faces, some have features peculiar to themselves ; 
but all are learned, not by describing them orally, but 
by using our sense of sight. Words of as many letters 
as they have souuds may be learned by seeing and 
pronouncing them. If the teacher dictates such words 
as paper, lamp, pencil, etc., and carefully pronounces 
every sound, they will be written correctly. But the 
number of such words is comparatively small in Eng- 
lish. Other words in which the number is greater than 
that of their sounds, as book, street, slate, ring, etc., 
will have to be observed more closely and oftener by 
the young learner. In order to make the peculiarity 
of these words come out, and strike the attention, it 
is well to mark them thus : book, street, slate, etc. 
This should be done on the board. Such words as, 
separate, eulogy, forfeiture, strj/chnine, gayety, eti- 
o^ette (I take a few out of the multitude hap-hazard), 
are often misspelled. If marked on the board as in- 
dicated, and left there a few days, it may be safely 
said that their peculiarities will be remembered or 
recalled. 

The secret of vivid knowing is vivid seeing. If every 
spelling lesson is conducted according to the principle 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 239 

that we learn orthography more through sight than 
through the sense of hearing, I am sure we shall find 
little difficulty in obtaining good results. In higher 
grades, words may be grouped according to rules, but 
no rule should be given : it should invariably be dis- 
covered by the pupil. If the teacher put the following- 
words on the board in a column : " pavement, amuse- 
ment, chastisement, achievement, infringement," etc., 
and opposite to these, in another column, such as 
tv judgment, abridgment," and others, it will not be 
long till the pupils have discovered why the final e 
of "judge," for instance, in the second column, is 
dropped. This is mixing in a little brains in the other- 
wise dry study. 

At every stage of the course, however, this paradox 
remains true : " The more cra}on a teacher consumes, 
the better his instruction." 

A SUGGESTION IN SPELLING. 

Teachers who do not believe that oral spelling 
(" spelling down," spelling matches, and daily dicta- 
tion of a number of incongruous words from the 
spelling-book) did ever or will ever produce correct 
writers, that is, orthographers, and who have the 
courage of their conviction to say so, are often looked 
upon as miniature Bob Ingersolls. They are regarded 
as despoilers, who tear down without building up 
again. They are classed with the nihilists who be- 
lieve in Nirwana. Many a small soul trembles as his 
old-fashioned beloved spelling is attacked. In his 



240 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

anguish he peevishly cries out, " Noli turbara circulos 
meos," without being any thing like Archimedes in 
depth of thought, in extent of vision, in sincerity of 
purpose, or fertility of ingenuity. 

A list of words without meaning to the child, 
isolated words without connection in thought-bearing 
sentences, are like pebbles in the stomach. You may 
sugar-coat pebbles till they are almost too thick to 
swallow, but that does not make them digestible. 
They will merely weaken the system. Do not say, 
fair readers, " Here is another specimen of a live 
nihilist," for I mean to suggest something in place 
of the spelling lesson of " ye olden time." Hitherto 
we were in the habit of dictating words from the 
spelling-book which the pupils had been told "to 
study." I need not explain how utterly futile this 
studying of often incomprehensible, always incongru- 
ous, and therefore indigestible words, is. The pupils 
may succeed, for the time being, to spell, that is, to 
split them ; but they cannot correctly build them up 
again, write, and properly apply them. 

It may be and it is argued, ' k Our fathers learned to 
write correctly by being thus taught : why should not 
we?" In the first place, they did not learn to write 
correctly because they spelled orally, but despite their 
spelling orally all through the speller from back to 
back. All who did learn to write correctly did so 
because they read much, and noticed the physiognomy 
of the words ; and, when writing, used dictionaries 
and other books of reference. In the second place, 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 241 

if only that is right and worth} 7 of imitation which our 
fathers and forefathers did, then we deny the justice 
of progress of any kind. So, then, let the forefathers 
rest peacefully in their graves, and remember the 
poet's word : " Nur das Lebende hat Recht." 

There is something so ridiculous in the old-fash- 
ioned spelling exercises, that I cannot refrain from 
applying a homely simile which will throw light upon 
the procedure, and reveal its true inwardness. A 
simple-minded fellow enters the studio of a portrait- 
painter, and says, " Sir, I want you to paint my 
grandmother." — "With pleasure," replies the artist. 
"Bring her here; we must have several sittings to 
complete the picture." — " Well, but she's been dead 
these eighteen years ; if she were alive I shouldn't 
need her picture." Is it necessary to state that 
teachers often require words to be written with which 
the pupils are not familiar? Is that any thing else 
than asking the artist to paint a dead grandmother? 
But it is said some artists are able to paint a face they 
have seen but once. True ; and so certain children 
remember the physiognomy of words, and reproduce 
them after one glance. But exceptions are not the 
rule. Words (as well as faces) are better remem- 
bered if they are learned in proper surroundings. 
When we are brought face to face to a person who 
claims to have been introduced to us before, we ask, 
" Wliere was it I saw you? " 

Now, my suggestion is this : A reading lesson in 
the primary grades contains a certain number of new 



242 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

words, with which it is the intention to familiarize the 
pupils. After the lesson is read, the teacher ma}' 
single out the sentences in which these words occur, 
and have these sentences copied verbatim. If the 
words are strewed all over the reading lesson, so~ that 
copying the whole lesson would consume too much 
time, the teacher may embrace the new words in a 
few short, neat sentences, write them on the board, 
and have them copied from there. Now she may call 
upon the class to underscore the new words on the 
slates, as she does on the board. When that is done, 
she may ask the pupils to moisten the tip of the fore- 
finger, and erase the first word underscored, leaving 
the remainder of the text intact. It is done. She now 
asks, "What word did we erase?" "How was it 
spelled?" "Insert the word again." This is done 
with every new word of the lesson. Sometimes it is 
found desirable to treat a word thus repeatedly. This 
is teaching orthography in the primary grades ; it is 
not the thoughtless testing in vogue nearly every- 
where in this country, a procedure which seems to aim 
at a plentiful crop of mistakes. 

One of my teachers to whom I had recommended 
this manner of practising orthography said, " Well, 
but they get a hundred per cent every day." She 
meant to say, " Well, but now the pupils do not make 
mistakes any more." God be thanked, they don't: 
that is exactly what we should aim at. Suppose 
that we were to grade the pupils daily in cleanliness : 
would we drag them through the gutter first, and 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 243 

then wonder why they are not clean ? One ounce of 
prevention is better than a pound of cure. Let the 
pupils only write correct physiognomies of words, and 
their memory will not retain any wrong ones. Do not 
permit any mistake to be made. Go through the 
aisles, while the pupils are at work, and correct, that 
is to say, "make right" what is found wrong. By 
thus vigilantly weeding out error, you will develop in 
the pupils an orthographical conscience, so sensitive 
that it will revolt against error as a moral conscience 
will against crime. 

Of course this advice is offered to primary teachers ; 
in higher grades, other modes of teaching orthography 
may prove more successful. 

GARMENT AND SUBSTANCE OF THOUGHT. 

Why is it, that the eight years' course of an 
American common school yields far less fruit than a 
course of six or seven years in a German Volksschulef 
Why is it, that pupils in the Cincinnati, Cleveland, 
Columbus, and Hamilton schools, who have daily 
lessons in German beside their other English studies, 
are no whit behind their schoolmates who aim at a 
common English education only? It is no enigma to 
any one who comprehends the peculiar difficulties the 
English language affords. Reading and spelling Eng- 
lish are very difficult to learn. After the first year, 
there are literally no more difficulties in the mechani- 
cal part of reading for a child in Germany. But 
think of the enormous amount of time and energy 



244 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT. 

the English and American child has to expend in 
trying to master the mere garment of the thoughts of 
others. He finds little time and energy left for the 
substance of thought. The German language offers 
no obstacles in orthography, such as are found in 
English. The latter is full of pitfalls. Look at any 
of the numerous courses of study, for primary and 
intermediate grades. There we find reading, spelling, 
writing, grammar, and composition ; all these have 
reference to the garment and the forms of thought. 
Then we find geography, arithmetic, and a small 
pellet of home history ; these, in a measure, offer 
substance of, or material for, thought. When any one 
suggests that natural history, physics, physiology, and 
general history be inserted in the curriculum (all of 
which, by the way, are taught in the intermediate 
grades of German schools, only to a limited extent, 
of course), wise-acres raise the cry of over-pressure, 
and justly so perhaps. Are our children and chil- 
dren's children forever condemned to suffer from the 
iniquities of English orthography? Must they lose 
or waste precious years in early youth, in learning 
to wield the unruly instrument of English spelling? 
Think of the time and energy which might be saved 
if we wrote as ive pronounced, no more and no less. 
The recording angel must shed a silent tear of un- 
speakable misery, when he is obliged to record in 
English ; but then it is reasonable to presume that 
he, at least, writes phonetically, — a presumption 
which needs no Anclover theology to uphold it. 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 245 

MISS LOTTIE'S THREE BOYS. 

Miss Lottie Phillips, teacher in the Fifth Ward 
School, Hamilton, the other clay gave a model lesson 
in reading, before the teachers of Hamilton, and 
astonished them all by her skill in applying sounding, 
instead of spelling, in teaching to read. First, she 
proved that the pupils had been taught the required 
number of complete words by the word-method ; then 
she practised analysis of such words as rat, man, and 
the like. This analysis was illustrated by placing 
three of the brightest little chaps in front of the class, 
charging one to say m (the sound m, not the letter 
em) when called upon; the next one, a; and the 
third, n. Then by placing them close to each other, 
so that their shoulders would touch, she made them 
sound the word man rapidly. The same was done 
with other words. 

Now she separated the boys, the middle oue re- 
maining in his place, while the others receded toward 
the right and left ; and every time they made a step, 
the word was pronounced over again, thus separat- 
ing the sounds farther and farther. After that was 
done, synthesis followed, and the two " end men " 
came back to their old position step by step, the three 
bo}'s pronouncing the sounds as often as a step was 
made, the sounds being drawn long enough to make 
them appear one word. 

Then other words were treated in like manner. 
Now the teacher changed the boys' positions, and 



246 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

asked each to pronounce his sound. Of course, it 
was at once seen that that did not make the word 
man, or whatever word was before the class. Finally 
they assumed their former position, and once more 
the well-known words were pronounced. Then these 
words were found on the chart, on the board, in print 
and script form ; and it was quite obvious that the 
class enjoyed the lesson hugely. 

Call this play, if you please. If the children learn 
more by play than by joyless drudgery, I prefer play 
every time. I assure nrry readers it was visible to the 
naked eye, that there was every condition of success- 
ful teaching exhibited by teacher and pupil. 

IN BLACK ON WHITE. 

It is well known what an excellent schoolmaster 
James A. Garfield w r as. He possessed a skill in 
leading the students ad absurdum, rarely surpassed 
by any living teacher. When he was president of 
Hiram College, something was remarked about the 
slovenliness, carelessness, and general w T ant of exacti- 
tude, of the students in copying or quoting authorities. 
He desired to test this, and his genius hit upon a most 
admirable way of doing it. He copied a passage from 
Virgil on a slip of paper ; cut fifty more slips of the 
same size, and then handed one of the students his 
copy, and asked him to copy that for him quickly, to 
oblige him, because he had not time to do it himself. 
The student went to work, copied it hastily, and 
Garfield numbered this copy 1 in the corner. Then 



LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 247 

he gave this copy, No. 1, to a second student, and 
asked him also to copy it. He did this so unostenta- 
tiously that student No. 1 was not aware of it. The 
second copy was given into the hands of the third, 
the third into the hands of the fourth, the fourth copy 
into the hands of the fifth, until finally the forty- 
ninth copy was put into the hands of the fiftieth 
student. The last ten or more boys had a broad 
smile on their faces while they copied the passage. 
The reason of this was well known to Garfield. When 
at last the fiftieth copy was handed to him (it may 
have taken a number of days, so as to accomplish 
this copying without revealing the intention), it looked 
more like Russian or Hebrew than Latin. It was 
literally incomprehensible. Every one of the copyists 
had made new mistakes, until finally the last copy 
proved incontestably, to both students and faculty, 
the justness of the remark about the boys' shiftless- 
ness and inaccuracy. This occurrence was an eye- 
opener for the whole college. 

Shall we add a moral? Yes, fair reader, it is this : 
Ti'} 7 it yourself with plain English, and convince your 
own boys and girls to what inaccuracy leads. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

GEOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

GEOGKAPHY. 

A NEW DEPARTURE IN TEACHING 
GEOGRAPHY. 

[A Paper rend before the National Educational Association.] 

Permit me to depart from the customary method of 
procedure, by starting from the general, and going 
down to the particular subject, by first directing atten- 
tion to the fact that in teaching young pupils we 
should invariably start from sense-perception ; from 
that, the next step to conception and idea is easily 
taken, — never vice versa. Show the child the partic- 
ular, "the concrete thing; show him several similar 
facts, and offer an opportunity to abstract from them, 
to rise from the object to the idea. Every subject of 
instruction in the lower schools has a certain ele- 
mentary basis of sense-perception. The primary ideas 
resulting therefrom will be easily understood by the 
child, because by means of his five senses he can take 
them in, retain and assimilate them. If any thing be 
taught lacking this sound basis, — that is, any thing 
the elements of which cannot be perceived by the 
senses, — it has no business to be included in the course 
of study of the elementary schools ; it would, in fact, 

251 



252 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

be like the proverbial bladeless knife that had no 

handle. In a measure, this rule holds good in every 

branch of study, even in the most abstract philosophy. 

A few simple examples can explain what is meant. 

(1) You may never see South America, yet you may 
obtain a tolerably accurate knowledge of the topog- 
raphy of that continent. And it is sense-perception 
by means of which you gain this knowledge. You 
know what is signified by such terms as elevations and 
depressions, peaks and ridges, valleys and heights, 
plateaus and plains, coasts and banks, capes and in- 
lets, rivers and lakes, ba}'s and harbors, islands and 
peninsulas, llanos and pampas ; they are names of 
things the like of which have come under your own 
personal observation. And with the aid of illustra- 
tions your imaginative power may be fed sufficiently 
to obtain a pretty accurate idea of South America. 

(2) The artist who modelled the Venus of Milo may not 
have seen the original in reality ; but his power of im- 
agination was so great, that, starting from what forms 
of beaut} 7 he had seen, he combined them, and thus 
created the graceful figure which to this day has re- 
mained the ideal of beauty. (3) No one ever saw the 
ideal, that is, the absolutely perfect human being, of 
whom we all have a more or less definite idea. His 
eye must have the keenness of an eagle's eye ; his 
forms must vie in beauty with those of Apollo Belve- 
dere ; his strength must be superhuman ; he must be 
accomplished in all the arts, be a Mozart in music, a 
Raphael in painting, a Demosthenes in elocution, etc. ; 



GEOGRAPHY. 253 

he must be a thinker far beyond any philosopher 
of ancient or modern times ; in point of morals he 
must be as unblemished as the very stars above. 
Where is he to be found ? Yet he exists in our im- 
agination ; and he is a creation, every part of which 
has its origin in reality. (4) Take history. You were 
not present at the downfall of the Roman republic ; 
yet from what is told you, and from what you have 
experienced yourself, you can form a vivid picture of 
the state of things at the time of Caesar. And your 
knowledge of the events that happened two thousand 
years ago in Rome will be the more vivid, the clearer 
your ideas are of the political institutions of your own 
country. 

Analoy and comparison are impossible when there 
is nothing in your mind with which to compare. Not 
having a standard measure, how will you measure a 
distance? Every iota of instruction, every idea, every 
rule, must be based upon, or lead back to, perceptions 
previously gained ; and where these are wanting, they 
must be supplied. This is a condition of rational 
instruction sine qua 7ion. 

In the special subject under discussion in this paper, 
the question arises : Have our pupils the necessary 
basis of sense-perception when they take up the study 
of geography, say in the third school-year? I think 
not ; and in the way in which geography is taught 
commonly, we do not even offer facilities for gaining 
sense-perception. Do not say, "Ay, but we do; for 
we start from the schoolroom, and gradually widen the 



254 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

horizon of observation." Despite this assertion, I 
repeat : The method in vogue is faulty, inasmuch as it 
fails to establish, first of all, a sound basis of sense- 
perception. The average teacher begins to build 
before he knows upon what foundation he builds. To 
prove my assertion, I could bring in evidence enough 
to convince even a jury composed of proverbial court- 
house rats. A few facts may suffice, however. 

Of ninety pupils in a grammar school in Hamburg, 
only thirty-eight had seen the sun rise ; only eight had 
ever noticed the Milky Way. Out of a thousand chil- 
dren, when entering the public schools of Berlin, only 
six hundred and thirty-eight had seen the evening red, 
only four hundred and sixty -two the setting sun. I 
am prepared to give many more instances of ignorance 
of common daily occurrences and facts, but my time 
is limited. Of five hundred and two children that en- 
tered the schools of Plauen, Saxony, last year, only 
ninety-two had seen the sun rise, and a hundred and 
fourteen had seen the sun set. You may be tempted 
to say, '„' These frightful examples of ignorance were 
found in Germany. God be thanked, they cannot be 
found in enlightened America." This is but poor 
consolation. I claim these cases have been systematic- 
ally enumerated in Germany, because there teaching 
is a profession, and people there are accustomed to 
treat educational questions with scientific thorough- 
ness ; while in this country, as Hon. Henry Barnard 
of Connecticut says, "The business of education is 
pursued with an utter lack of system, with complete, 



GEOGRAPHY. 255 

unsympathizing, independent, self-dependent isolation 
of effort." I am confident that our American children, 
if examined, would be found to exhibit the same de- 
plorable want of information. Dr. Stanley Hall has 
proven this satisfactorily to all who are not prejudiced. 
My own experience, during twenty years in the school- 
rooms of this country, is in substance the same. 

The greatest error, then, which prevails in the teach- 
ing of geography, is the lack of preliminary steps. In 
every other branch of study, even the most inferior 
teacher proceeds somewhat rationally ; but geography 
usually begins, I am sorry to say, with the introduction 
of the text-book. 

Ritter, the father of modern geographical science, 
says, "The most natural method is the one which 
makes the child familiar with reality first, which lays 
a sound foundation of geographical knowledge gained 
through actual observation of that part of nature which 
surrounds the child. Here he is to learn to see. 
Whether he lives in the cit}' or in the hamlet, on the 
mountain or in the valley, it is certainly not within 
the four walls, not from maps, and not from the text- 
book, but in nature alone, that knowledge of nature 
will be gained b} T him. Nature ever remains the same ; 
she knows no typographical errors, no blunders in 
drawing, no want of discretion. Nature's teaching is 
always perfect. This elementary method combines all 
the requirements of science : it furnishes the stratum 
of concrete knowledge, from which abstract ideas are 
drawn. Amid nature, the child learns to know the 



256 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

country in all its various conditions, and learns to 
recognize it even on the flat-surfaced representation, 
— the map. If this genuine elementary instruction 
be given, all difficulties of subsequent instruction in 
geography are removed." 

I know I am not sa}ing an} r thing new. Other peo- 
ple have spoken of the necessity of laying the founda- 
tion correctly, but what I desire to do is to show you 
how this can be done. During the summer, I fre- 
quently take my children into parks and out into the 
country. Let me describe one of these excursions. 
One morning we started out due east, which direction 
was fixed by the rising sun. We roamed about till we 
found the source of a brooklet. Here I began my 
lesson on watersheds, river-systems, etc. Here the 
children saw the very beginning of a water-course. 
They noticed the water trickling from beneath the 
roots of large trees, till it increased enough in bulk 
and force to run along in the form of a creek. Here 
they learned by actual observation what a watershed 
is, seeing one spring descend on the one side of a 
ridge, another on the opposite side. We then followed 
the brook, saw it grow deeper and wider by the influx 
of other springs. In following it, we sometimes cut 
across the fields where certain curves in its course 
would have prolonged the excursion unnecessarily. 
Every curve, hill, and valley was carefully sketched on 
a slate as we proceeded. When we reached the end 
of the brook, we saw where it emptied into the tribu- 
tary of a larger river. Ascending a hill, we could see 



GEOGRAPHY. 257 

the river meander through the country, could see that 
it was bridged over in the neighborhood of the city. 
And on this excursion we noticed hills, rocks, slopes, 
plateaus, woods, meadows, fields, plains, valleys, 
paths, high-roads, railroads, farmhouses, and settle- 
ments. The observations were all carefully noted 
down on our slates, and the names were repeated, and 
thus fixed in the memory. The children learned to 
distinguish the different kinds of grain, many kinds of 
trees, certain minerals, birds, and insects ; and thus 
we mingled a little natural history with our geographi- 
cal lesson. At home we had a review lesson, which 
proved incontrovertibly that this kind of instruction 
is the most successful of all. 

We may call this an ideal lesson in geography. 
Circumstances, as they prevail in our schools, make 
it next -to impossible to follow this example. All 
things considered, however, I dare say, if a teacher 
of a Third Reader grade would take her pupils out of 
town, and take a position on the top of a hill if there 
is any within reach, and then and there point out the 
different things to be seen, I am sure the children 
would learn more real geography in one half-hour 
than they could in a year from the printed page. 
Some cities are favorably situated for such instructive 
excursions ; and if the school authorities were asked 
for permission, I believe they would not refuse it. 

If, however, this ideal instruction in geography be 
considered impracticable, we might substitute some- 
thing in- place of nature, something imitative of 



258 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

nature, by which to form that primary basis of sense- 
perception, without which instruction in geography 
will never have lasting results ; something better than 
the flat-surfaced representation, the map. We can 
make the hills and the valleys, the capes and the 
ridges, the plains and plateaus, the water-courses and 
water-sheds, by procuring a large baker's pan of gal- 
vanized sheet-iron ; and with clay, sand, gravel, a few 
sticks and twigs, and water, we can mould mountains, 
hills, and show lakes, rivers, etc., and thus create 
a fancy representation which offers, in a measure, 
what nature itself offers. In this way, too, we can 
lay out a city or village, a whole state or continent, 
in the rough. In short, by way of imitation, we can 
establish all the primary ideas desirable for a thorough 
comprehension of the subsequent instruction in geog- 
raphy. We must dismiss from our mind the erroneous 
idea that we may take for granted the existence of 
certain elementary ideas in our pupils. Rather pre- 
sume too little than too much. Again I state that I 
am saying nothing new. I only intend to lead up to 
a point which will be new. 

A large pan, such as I have described, ought to be 
furnished b} T the school authorities, to every Second 
and Third Reader grade. Then, when the preliminary 
steps to the study of geography have been taken, we 
may introduce such relief maps as are now patented 
in this country. They show elevations and depres- 
sions and water-courses in superficial projection. 
They are made of papier-mache, and are covered with 



GEOGRAPHY-. 259 

slating or other cleansible substances, adapted to 
receive obliterative marks made with slate or lead 
pencil or crayon, and may be used as slates. These 
maps serve to bridge over the chasm between nature 
and the flat-surfaced representation, — the ordinary 
map. 

Let me submit to your earnest consideration these 
questions : Has not geographical knowledge, for ages, 
been wrested from overstocked maps? Had not the 
child to search painfully among a bewilderiug mass of 
data and facts, for those that were to be committed 
to memory? Was not a systematic progress, step by 
step, impossible? Now, just as little as a teacher 
would give into the hands of a child a copy of 
Webster's Unabridged when he is to begin the study 
of reading, just as little can it be rational, in geog- 
raphy, to place before the child such a map. We 
must grade the matter of instruction in geography, 
just as we grade the matter in reading, in arithmetic, 
and other branches. Relief maps of this kind would 
facilitate this grading, as well as present opportunities 
for the gradual upbuilding of a geographical knowl- 
edge, as gained item by item by the child. 

They can be made as cheap as common maps, and 
will therefore meet the formidable objection of cost, 
raised against relief maps heretofore. Upon these 
maps may be entered, as upon a slate, the data to 
be learned. And thus the child is made self-active : 
it learns by doing. When the lesson is completed, 
the marks and names entered upon it are carefully 



260 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

erased with moist sponge, and we are ready for a 
new or for a review lesson. 

And now we ascend to the higher grades, the Fourth 
or Fifth Reader classes. Thus far, I understand, few 
teachers, if any, use a text-book in teaching geogra- 
phy. From this grade upward, the text-book is used 
everywhere. I am not in sympathy with this. I can- 
not recommend any text-book that contains more than 
maps and illustrations. It should contain no text ; 
should, in fact, be no text-book, but an atlas pure 
and simple. Why? I shall state farther on. And 
as to the wall-maps, I have my serious doubts as to 
their usefulness in their present condition. A wall- 
map to be used in the Fourth or Fifth Reader grade 
should have recorded upon it nothing but what 
belongs by right to a picture or representation of 
nature ; and therefore it should contain no lettering, 
no names. Permit me to present to your consider- 
ation a map which I made for my own children. I 
procured a portable blackboard, drew the map by 
means of the pentagraph, and colored the water- 
courses pale blue. In order to make it less destructi- 
ble, I gave it a waterproof, cleansible surface. Let 
me show you how the map may be used. It contains, 
as you will notice, only the outlines of the continent, 
exhibiting terra Jirma in black ; oceans, lakes, and 
water-courses in blue ; and no name whatever. 

The teacher, pointer and colored crayon in hand, 
pointing to the sources of two rivers that run in 
almost opposite directions, draws out by a few leading 



GEOGRAPHY. 261 

questions, that here must be a water-shed. Children 
who have been taught as I indicated at the beginning 
of my discourse are able to thus reason from effect 
back to cause. Knowing that water seeks its level, 
they will, with great decision and accuracy, fix upon 
the map all important water-sheds of the country; 
These are marked with crayon by the teacher himself, 
or by pupils under his direction. By degrees, the 
map is stocked with all the elevations to be learned. 
This takes very little time, aud has the great advan- 
tage of concentrating the pupils' attention. Every 
name thus learned, both of mountains and rivers, is 
written on the board : the name of the main river in 
the middle ; below it., on the left, its left tributaries ; 
on the right, its right tributaries. These names are 
left on the board a few days. They are spelled and 
copied. The names of elevations thus learned are 
grouped and treated likewise. The coast-line, islands, 
capes, inlets, peninsulas, etc., are pointed out, marked 
with crayon, and named. Thus crayon and pointer 
are ever kept busy in bringing out new points. The 
coast line and general configuration of the continent 
may be taken for one lesson, the rivers for another, 
and so on. After the lesson is over, all marks are 
erased ; and now the pupils are called upon to mark 
points themselves and thus learn by doing. 

Thus we may suppose topographical facts of the 
most vital importance to have been learned. In a 
subsequent lesson, a little green-crayon dust, laid on 
with the finger-tip, may indicate fertile valleys ; white 



262 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

dots or lines, snow-covered mountain ranges or peaks ; 
various depths of the sea, and other things, may be 
marked, and the topography is disposed of. Now 
political boundaries are marked. So, for instance, a 
State is " cut out " by white or colored crayon ; canals 
and trunk-roads are entered upon the map ; and I 
need not say that the location of cities forms a most 
valuable and entertaining lesson. 

The fact that whatever geographical data are spread 
upon the map may be easily and safely removed 
without the least injury to body or surface of the 
map, gives an opportunity for the pupils to be self- 
active ; and these "practice maps" are therefore a 
most welcome medium of instruction. They are also 
distinguished from others now in use, by containing 
no lettering, and therefore present a more perfect 
image of the country portrayed. The names on the 
map used by children are like ponies and keys in 
arithmetic, and only disfigure the map, and confuse 
the mental picture. These "practice maps" do not 
displace the ordinary printed maps, so long as our 
teachers are not omniscient. When the pupils have 
thus learned geograplry by degrees, it is well to permit 
them to consult liberally stocked maps. Primer and 
reading charts naturally precede the dictionary and 
complete works of authors. 

To give due honor to truth, we all labor more or 
less under the delusion that a map is good when it 
contains much; that it is poor when it contains little. 
In the common sense of the term, the word " good" is 



GEOGRAPHY. 263 

not misapplied. The map of a military leader must 
contain every turnpike, path, hamlet, brook, creek, 
bridge, marsh, grove, hill, etc., if it is to be a good 
map. A commercial map, if it come up to the mer- 
chant's idea, must contain all the information of value 
to him : I need not enumerate these things. The 
geometer, again, has a different standard of value. 
And so have we ours. A map for the schoolroom 
should contain what the children are to learn ; cer- 
tainly very little if aught more. To give into the 
hands of children, or hang up for use, an overstocked 
map, is like giving the children a lexicon instead of a 
reader. In teaching literature, we give them selec- 
tions, and object to complete works of authors. In 
history, we use mere skeletons of data and facts, and 
supply the remainder by word of mouth. In every 
branch of study, we leave the limits of the matter of 
instruction to the discretion of the teacher. Why not 
do so in geography? Why should we put up with 
overloaded maps? 

I have asked the question elsewhere, and the timid 
answer came : u We have to take what the publishers 
offer us." I do not believe this need be the case. 
The publishers are merchants. The steady force of 
the law of supply and demand, and the sleepless in- 
stinct of gain, determine what they should offer for 
sale. If such maps as these " practice maps " were 
wanted by a great number of teachers, you may 
depend upon it, the}' would make their appearance in 
due season. No : the fault lies with the teachers, and 



264 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

with the unnatural and irrational method of teaching 
in vogqe all over the country ; it lies with the school- 
authorities, who in many cases labor under the common 
error that the more a map contains, the more perfect it 
must be. 

Sensible teachers have helped themselves by resort- 
ing to the blackboard. They sketched or drew the 
outlines of the map, traced the water-courses with blue 
crayon, and then proceeded as indicated before, — that 
is, spread upon the map by degrees all information 
of value, until the pupils' knowledge was extended 
enough, and their comprehension developed enough, 
to make sensible use of printed maps. But I have 
noticed in these cases a great waste of time, much un- 
avoidable inaccuracy on the part of the teacher, and 
many misconceptions on the part of the pupils. 

I have little to say upon the subject, as far as it 
concerns the upper grades of the grammar school and 
the high school. There maps may be used which are 
liberally furnished with information, provided rational 
instruction has preceded in the lower schools. Teach- 
ers of higher grades have just cause for complaint. 
Their pupils have not acquired a knowledge of geog- 
raplry as they should have done. The memory (evi- 
dently the faculty upon which we have to rely most in 
teaching geography) retains willingly only that which 
has gone through reason and understanding. What- 
ever the mind does not grasp is difficult to remember. 
Not every thing to be learned can be understood, how- 
ever : still we may make it palatable and digestible by 



GEOGRAPHY. 265 

connecting with it incidents of interest. So, for in- 
stance, a child who hears the laughable story which 
led to the naming of Cape Finisterre, and the trivial 
reason for the naming of Cape Cod, or Cape Farewell, 
or Cape Verd, etc., will not easily forget these names. 
All this is so self-evident, that I feel as if I paid small 
compliment to you by repeating it. But I do it to 
point out the utter absurdity of learning geography 
from the printed text. Here are a few tidbits of 
information as found in some geographies : — 

"Zenith and Nadir are two Arabic words impart- 
ing their own signification." (How lucid!) "Land 
is either level or diversified by t elevations or depres- 
sions." (How wonderfully clear to children this must 
be!) "Commerce consists in the exchange of com- 
modities." (Is it possible?) "North America, lying 
in three zones, and traversed by lofty mountain ranges, 
is marked by astounding varieties of climate and pro- 
ductions." (Will not this cause mental dyspepsia?) 
" Extensive forests of deciduous trees cover this sec- 
tion." " Indian mounds of an unknown antiquity are 
found in Georgia." Verily, we cannot thank kind 
Providence enough for having gifted the human mem- 
ory with the happy facult}* of throwing off what has 
not gone through the mill of reason and understand- 
ing. What a frightful waste of energy is there in 
schools where such unpalatable and indigestible mat- 
ter is set before the pupils who are told to " study " 
their geography lesson ! 

I cannot refrain from quoting Goethe ; the tempta- 



266 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

tion is too great. We find in "Goetz von Berlich- 
ingen " the following conversation. Goetz, Lord of 
Jaxthausen, returns home, and meets his son Carl. 

Carl. " Good-morning, father! " 

Goetz (kisses him). "Good-morning, boy! How 
have you all spent your time ? ' ' 

Carl. "Well, good father. Auntie says I was 
right good." 

Goetz. "Indeed?" 

Carl. " I have learned a great deal." 

Goetz. "Indeed?" 

Carl. " Shall I tell you the story of the good 
boy?" 

Goetz. " After dinner ; not now." 

Carl. " I know something else." 

Goetz. ' ' What may that be ? " 

Carl. "Jaxthausen is the name of a village and 
castle on the river Jaxt, belonging to the Lords of Ber- 
lichingen for the last two hundred years." 

Goetz. " Do you know the Lord of Berlichingen?" 
. (Carl looks at him in mute astonishment.) 

Goetz (aside). "The boy has become so learned, 
that he does not know his own father." (To the boy.) 
" To whom does Jaxthausen belong? " 

Carl (reciting). "Jaxthausen is the name of a 
village and castle on the river Jaxt ' ' — 

Goetz. "I did not ask for that." (Aside.) "I 
knew all the paths, roads, and fords, before I knew the 
name of river, castle, and village." 

Now I do not mean to accuse the teachers of to-day 



GEOGRAPHY. 267 

of teaching with such results as Goethe here describes 
it to have been clone in the Middle Ages. But I mean 
to state, that we are constantly subjected to the temp- 
tation to thus teach geography, as long as we have 
text-books. What can a teacher mean when assigning 
a lesson in such a book? What else than to commit 
verbally to memory such and such a page? That this 
is literally true, is seen the next day, when he " hears 
his classes." He conducts recitations. What is a 
recitation? Webster and Worcester say, " A recitation 
is a repetition of something committed to memory." 

Now, I certainly do not denounce recitations in geog- 
raphy, or in any other study, for I want my pupils to 
frequently repeat what they have learned ; but I expect 
and require them to do it in their own words. A defi- 
nition wrought out in the mind of the child by his own 
self-activity, even if it do not cover the entiret}' of 
the subject, is vastly better than one committed from 
the printed page. 

To sum up. The ideal method in the lower grades, 
of course, is to let the children make the acquaintance 
of Mother Nature herself. That being out of the 
question in many cases, we can imitate her, and mould 
those objects which will give the primary notions and 
ideas absolutely necessary for the subsequent abstract 
instruction. When these primary ideas are well estab- 
lished, when the child has become acquainted with the. 
position of the schoolhouse, yard, and neighborhood, 
with the cardinal points, with the city and its vicinity, 
with the river, or the lake, as the case may be, wheu 



268 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

he has gained some definite ideas of distance, when he 
is able to comprehend the relation between reality and 
its representation, then such practice-maps as I have 
described, both relief and flat-surfaced maps, and, in 
the absence of these, the blackboard, may be used. 
We must remember that "a good teacher is known 
from the intensity of attention with which the pupils 
follow his instruction, and from the amount of crayon 
he uses." And, as to text-books, let them be atlases, 
containing no text whatever. The maps should be 
elementary maps, not overstocked with data and letter- 
ing of all kinds, tending to blur the child's image of 
the respective country or section. Let these maps be 
accompanied by illustrations of cities, landscapes, 
vegetable productions, animals, modes of communica- 
tion, occupations, buildings, etc. But do aivay with 
the terrible temptation to make the pupils thoughtless 
prattlers. 

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY, THE SIAMESE 
TWINS. 

I. 

John. — "Teacher, I wonder why the southern 
boundaiy of the State of Michigan is not one continued 
straight line." 

Answer. — "Well, my boy, thereby hangs a tale. 
Do you know the boundaries of the former North- 
western Territory ? " 

John. — " Yes, sir : it was all the land north of the 



GEOGRAPHY. 269 

Ohio, east of the Mississippi, south of the lakes, and 
west of Pennsylvania." 

Answer. — "When, in the year 1802, a sufficient 
number of people had settled in that part of the North- 
western Territory now known as the State of Ohio, 
to ask for admission into the Union, the request was 



granted by Congress. It made very little difficulty to 
settle the boundaries of the new State. The western 
boundary of Pennsylvania was a surveyed line : that 
naturally became the boundary also of Ohio. On the 
south they had the Ohio River as a boundary, because 
south of that the States of Virginia and Kentucky were 
situated. On the north Lake Erie was a natural bound- 



270 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

ary. All that remained to be settled was a western 
and partly also a northern boundary. Now, that 
partial boundary was found by drawing a straight line 
from the most western extremity of Lake Erie to the 
most southern extremity of Lake Michigan [see the 
above cut]. The western boundary was found by 
starting at the Ohio River near the mouth of the Big 
Miami River and going northward on a line with the 
meridian until the line was struck which was drawn 
between the two lakes, Erie and Michigan. Thus the 
boundary of Ohio was settled, and the people were 
satisfied. 

"When, fourteen years later, in 1816, the Territory 
of Indiana expressed the desire to be admitted into 
the Union as a State, Congress complied with the 
request, suggesting that the surveyed line between 
the two lakes — namely, between the two extremities 
of the two lakes — be taken for the northern boundary, 
and that from the point of the most southern extension 
of Lake Michigan a line be drawn on a line with the 
meridian until the Wabash River was reached. [These 
lines will be found in the above cut as represented by 
solid black lines.] But the people then residing in the 
Territory clamored for a more equitable adjustment of 
the boundary of the new State. ' For,' said they, 
4 the lines suggested defraud us entirely of lake-front.' 
This was a well-founded objection ; and therefore the 
northern boundary was extended somewhat toward 
the north, and the western somewhat toward the west. 
[Indicated in the above cut by dotted lines.] This 



GEOGRAPHY. 271 

gave the State of Indiana a sufficient stretch of lake- 
front ; and the present town, Michigan City, situated 
there, proves the wisdom of the step taken by the 
boundary commission. 

" When, some years afterward, the Territory of 
Illinois was to be admitted into the Union, the old 
originally surveyed line between" the two lakes, it was 
suggested, should be extended to the Mississippi River, 
and thus the northern boundary of Illinois settled. 
This met with the same objection mentioned above. 
The people of Illinois claimed a portion of lake-front : 
therefore the northern boundary of Illinois was estab- 
lished considerably north of the original line." 

John. — " That sounds reasonable ; but why should 
the so-called Superior peninsula [see cut, the shaded 
portion of land] belong to the State of Michigan ? It 
seems as if by rights it should belong to Wisconsin." 

Answer. — "Well, my boy, thereb}- hangs another 
tale. In the year 1835, the State of Ohio and the 
Territory of Michigan had quite a heated dispute over 
certain boundary questions. A strip of land was 
claimed by both. Both governors called out the 
militia, and war was declared between the two ' great 
powers ; ' but it did not come to any blows. Congress 
mediated, and settled the dispute by offering Michigan 
the peninsula south of Lake Superior, and promising 
the Territory admission into the Union as a State. 
The government of the Territory accepted the terms, 
and relinquished its claim upon Ohio. This ridiculous 
squabble made a great furore at the time, but is now 



272 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 



forgotten, as every other squabble will be forgotten. 
The histories do not speak of it, since history is a 
narration of memorable events ; and, no memorable 
event having happened in connection with this occur- 
rence, history has had nothing to record. Yet withal 
Michigan owns that peninsula, my boy, and don't }'ou 
forget it." 

II. 

John. — "Here is another odd corner, professor. 
What is the object of this triangle? " (pointing toward 




the triangle belonging to the State of Pennsylvania, 
bordering on Lake Erie, on which the city of Erie is 
situated.) 

Answer. — "Well, nvy boy, there is but little of a 



GEOGRAPHY. 273 

tale connected with that. When the original Colonies, 
New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Caro- 
lina, and so on, settled their boundaries, they took 
certain parallels for boundary-lines. It so happened 
that the northern boundary of Pennsylvania reached 
Lake Erie at the same point where now its western 
boundary reaches it. This deprived Pennsylvania 
entirely of lake-front ; and in order to acquire some, 
it was obliged to purchase from the Colony of New 
York, afterward State of New York, that strip of 
land known as the Pennsylvania triangle* It was of 
great importance to the State that it should have lake- 
front ; for at the time, when there were no railroads, 
navigation on the lakes, rivers, and canals was of 
greater importance than it is now, although at present 
navigation may be greater than it used to be. What 
Pennsylvania paid for the strip of land, is immaterial." 

John. — "But there is another oddity about the 
boundaries of Pennsylvania. I notice that there is 
between Delaware and Pennsylvania a perfect arc. Is 
not that rather an arbitrary way of establishing a 
boundary ? 

Answer. — " Yes, I think it is, and 'arbitrary' is the 
proper term in this case ; for, when a dispute arose 
about the establishment of that boundary (the survey- 
ors at that time were not of the highest type of civil 
engineers, and had very rude instruments), some one 
applied a compass on the map, setting one foot of it 
at a certain projection on the banks of the Delaware 
River, and described a perfect arc. This arbitrary 



274 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 



line happened to be such a happy compromise, which 
divided all claims equally, that it was immediately 
adopted by the contesting parties. 

" And now, my boy, look at Alabama. Why should 
Florida claim so much coast which apparently belongs 
to Alabama? And why, again, should it deprive 
Georgia entirely of an approach to the Gulf of 
Mexico? There is a question for you to settle. You 
can easily answer it by consulting the history that 
refers to the acquisition of Florida by the United 
States. Do it, and report to-morrow." 

III. 

John. — "I discovered a curious ' freak of nature,' 
professor, if so I ma}' be permitted to call it. It is a 




4 horn' on the northern boundary of the United States, 
which seems so out of place, that I cannot account for 
it. It appears, the boundary crosses one section of 



GEOGRAPHY. 275 

the Lake of the Woods, and encloses a triangular 
peninsula, and then goes southward till it reaches the 
forty-ninth parallel, along which it proceeds till it 
touches the Pacific. I am strongly tempted to ask, 
'why is this thusly?' " 

Answer. ■— " Well; my boy, every historical event 
leaves its traces behind. It is in history very much as 
it is in nature, and cause and effect are ever noticeable. 
I will deviate a little, and give you an illustration from 
the Darwinian theory. You know that during the last 
century the coats of soldiers were worn in a fashion 
which required two buttons in the back of the coat. 
The front of the skirt was folded back, and fastened 
by two buttons. You will recollect having seen a 
picture of Frederick the Great, or of Washington, in 
their uniforms ; and there you will have noticed the 
fashion referred to. In our time, that fashion has 
disappeared, and the skirt of the frock-coat is per- 
mitted to fall. The buttons still remain, for no prac- 
tical use that we can see. They are a remnant of a 
former fashion, just as the small bow which we fasten 
to our shirt-collar by a hook is the remnant of a cravat 
which used to be several yards long, and was wound 
around the neck ever so often. 

" Now, this horn on our northern boundary is also a 
remnant, or, let me say. a witness, of certain historical 
events of interest to us as Americans. Let me first 
say, that the sources of the Mississippi River were not 
known at the time when the Mississippi was made the 
boundary betweeu the great French possession, called 



276 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Louisiana, and our original thirteen States : perhaps it 
was supposed to rise from the Lake of the Woods. 
It was settled by the boundary commission, convened 
in Paris, that the boundary between Louisiana and the 
United States should be the Mississippi River ; and 
the line should be followed till it reached a point 
49° 40' ; that is, forty-nine degrees and forty minutes 
north latitude. It is interesting to hear wh}* the forty- 
ninth degree of latitude was chosen ; namely, because 
it is the latitude of Paris. Now, if you will please 
notice, my boy, this horn is exactly forty minutes of 
a degree in length. That forty minutes has never 
been called in question. 

" But another thing greatly agitated the minds of 
the citizens of the United States during Polk's admin- 
istration. It was the boundary between the land west 
of the Rocky Mountains, and British America. The 
United States had claimed some territory north of this 
line, as far as Alaska, latitude 54° 40' ; and Great 
Britain had claimed the territory south of this line to 
the Columbia River. A large party in the United 
States preferred war with Great Britain to giving up 
the American claim. They demanded ' Fifty-four 
forty, or fight.' But by a treaty both Great Britain 
and the United States gave up part of their claims, 
and took a middle line as the boundary." 

"A veiy alliterative battle-cry, to be sure," says 
John. 

"You know yourself what parallel was finalty agreed 
upon as a compromise. But the curious thing that I 



GEOGRAPHY. 277 

call 3'our attention to is, that the triangular part cut 
off by the horn referred to is not approachable from 
the United States, except by water. [Consult the 
foregoing cut.] 

" Now, John, just look back into history. Think of 
the dark clays at the time of the birth of our Union. 
See the sturdy, honest, enthusiastic Ben Franklin, in 
his simple Quaker garments, at the sumptuous court of 
Louis XVI. in the gay city of Paris, fighting with the 
tenacity of a true Yankee for his own country and for 
as much territory as could be wrested from England 
Spain, and France. That little notch in the Canadian 
boundary is a memento of a noble time, full of prom- 
ise ; of great men full of noble virtues. It is a relic 
of 1783." 

IV. 

John. — " Is there a tale connected with the notch 
in the boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee, 
professor? It seems odd that the straight line from 
the coast to the Tennessee River, some seven hundred 
miles in length, should not have been continued till it 
reached the Mississippi River." 

Ansiuer. — " Well, my boy, this notch, as you call 
it, certainly troubles all common ideas of the eternal 
fitness of things. But there is no exciting tale con- 
nected with it, unless an example of wise, not to say 
shrewd, statesmanship may excite our curiosity. The 
line between Kentucky and Tennessee is not at all 
a straight line, not even from the Cumberland Moun- 
tains to the Tennessee River, but is very irregular, 



278 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

varying between 3G° 31' 25" and 36° 40' 45"; though 
our school geographies and maps represent that line as 




being so beautifully straight, that it might make a 
mathematician's heart glad. I searched a long time 
for the cause of the irregularity referred to, until, by 



GEOGRAPHY. 279 

the rare kindness of a friend in Tennessee, I was put 
in possession of facts which explain it. 

" Capt. U. C. Garrett of Nashville published a pam- 
phlet, some years ago, entitled ' The Northern Bound- 
ary of Tennessee,' from which I glean the following 
essential points : — 

" 'The territory now occupied by the two States — 
Kentucky and Tennessee — was formerly part of the 
States of Virginia and North Carolina. Kentucky is 
the daughter of Virginia, Tennessee the daughter of 
North Carolina. It is not necessary to refer back 
to the colonial history, and see how the dividing line 
was shifted repeatedly. Suffice it to say, that it had 
been finally fixed at thirty-six degrees thirty minutes 
north latitude, as early as the year 1728. After three 
hundred and twenty-nine miles of this boundary (begin- 
ning at the coast of the Atlantic) had been surveyed 
from time to time, and marked, no other step was taken 
in the location of the boundary until after the beginning 
of the Revolution. I quote Capt. Garrett : — 

" 'In 1779, urged b}' pressing demands from their 
Western settlers, the legislatures of the two States 
(Virginia and North Carolina) found time, in the 
midst of the Revolutionary struggle, to appoint a 
commission to extend their boundary. The commis- 
sioners, Henderson and W. B. Smith on the part of 
North Carolina, and Walker and Daniel Smith ou the 
part of Virginia, met in September, 1779. They 
failed to find the point at which a former commission 
ended their line on Steep Rock Creek. Memoranda 



280 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY, 

of agreement were entered on the books of both 
parties to the effect that the point of observation 
was in north latitude 36° 31' 25", and in west longi- 
tude 81° 12". They ran due south one mile to a 
point supposed to be in latitude 36° 30', " to the 
satisfaction of all." 

" ' From this point they ran a line, which they 
supposed to be due west, about forty-five miles to 
Carter's Valley. Here a disagreement occurred, and 
the two surveying parties separated, running parallel 
lines about two miles apart ; the line of the Carolina 
commissioners, generally known as Henderson's Line, 
being north of the line of the Virginia commissioners, 
commonly called Walker* s Line. The Carolina com- 
missioners continued their line as -far as Cumberland 
Mountains. At this point, they abandoned the work, 
after sending a letter of protest against Walker's Line. 
The Virginia commissioners continued to Tennessee 
River, and then, although not authorized to extend 
the line beyond Tennessee River, proceeded to mark 
its termination on the Mississippi ; but did not survey 
the intervening distance. 

u ' In consequence of the failure to make due allow- 
ance for the variation of the needle. Walker's Line de- 
flected continuously to the north. Either on account of 
the imperfection of their astronomical instruments, or 
from a failure to test their work by a sufficient num- 
ber of astronomical observations, the commissioners 
seemed not to detect, or at least did not correct, this 
constant northward deflection. Walker's Line first 



GEOGRAPHY. 281 

touched Tennessee near latitude 36° 34', and reached 
Tennessee River near latitude 36° 40', more than 
twelve miles too far north in a direct line, or about 
seventeen miles by way of the river. This fact has 
been established by subsequent surveys with more 
accurate instruments. Henderson's Line, running 
two miles north of Walker's Line, was still further 
wrong.' " 

The line really varies from the coast to Tennessee 
River, between latitude 3G° 2*9' 54" and 36° 40' 45", 
a difference of about eleven minutes. O.f course, when 
subsequently the two States (Kentucky and Tennessee) 
were obliged to adjust the annoying disputes arising 
from these irregularities, it was finally agreed upon to 
accept ^Walker's Line as far as Tennessee River, and 
from there to the Mississippi locate the boundary 
upon the latitude 3G° 30'. This caused the " notch." 
The agreement was arrived at only after several 
years of bickering and contention between the two 
States. 

The many changes from the true line 36° 30' can be 
accurately seen on the latest map* of the General Land 
Office. But even this map fails to give location to 
the V-shaped notch marked in the foregoing sketch- 
map. I am unable to account for it, nor does Capt. 
Garrett mention it. This little, and perhaps, for all 
practical purposes of school education, insignificant 
trifle, is not the only one found on the map. Massa- 
chusetts shows a similar oddity in its southern line. 
The mention of this may, perhaps, induce some one 



282 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

of the readers of this article to give a reason for the 
notch, or "show cause why the line should not be 
straight. ' ' 

PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS. 

This subject needs an introductory lesson. The 
following suggestions have been found very service- 
able. Clear the board. Make a large parallelogram. 



B 



Then make a dot within the figure, it is immaterial 
where. Ask the class to locate the dot. The answer 
will come, "It is difficult to tell." Some one will 
venture to say, "It is a little toward the right-hand 
upper corner," which is too indefinite a statement. 
Then make a number of parallel vertical lines which 
divide the figure into strips, and number the lines, 
beginning with 1 . Again make a 
/ a 3 </?(,? j ■ Qjo/uijj c | ot m one f trje strips, and ask 

$o locate it. This time the pupil 
will say, "It. is between lines 9 
and 10." 
Then cross the vertical by a number of horizontal 
lines. Number them also. Now it is easy to locate 
the dot. It will be found to be between the lines 9 
and 10, and between the horizontal lines 3 and 4. 
Make a number of other dots, squares, stars, rings, and 
triangles, within the figure thus prepared, and let them 




GEOGBAPHY. 283 

all be located. Now interrupt the lesson to wedge in 
a little necessary language and spelling. The words 
horizontal, perpendicular, vertical, and parallel should 
be placed on the board, underneath each other. Then 
their definitions and de- 
rivations are given : hor- 
izontal, from horizon; 
perpendicular, from 
pend, to hang (depend, 
to be suspended) ; ver- 
tical, from vertex, the 
highest point, the top. The best illustration to make 
the words horizon and horizontal clear, I have found in 
this : — 

Picture a plate, say a butter-dish, with a globe over 

it. Say, suppose a fly to sit in the middle of that dish. 

His vision will be bounded by the line where the globe 

touches the edge of the plate. See geography : " The 

horizon is the line where the sky seems to 

A touch the earth." The perpendicular can be 
illustrated by the pendulum of the clock in the 
schoolroom. 
Now erase your figure, draw a circle, and put a line 
from pole to pole and the equator in. (See cuts on 
p. 284.) Explain that the words equal and equator 
are cousins, not very far removed either. Draw nine 
parallels, curved lines, and say you have not the time 
to make ninety of them, each one, therefore, is to 
represent the tenth. Show them, that from one pole to 
the equator there are ninety of such parallels, and again 



284 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

from the equator to the other pole ninety, and so on, 
making three hundred and sixty in all. Then intro- 
duce the meridians, also curved lines, meeting at the 
poles. They being all of the same size, show that it 
is difficult to tell where to begin to count. With the 
parallels it is easy : beginning at the equator, we go 
north and south. Tell that in former years nearly 




every nation had its own meridian, the English that 
of Greenwich, the Americans that of Washington, the 
French that of Paris, the Germans that passing through 
the island of Ferro ; but that in a convention at 
Washington the representatives of the different civilized 
nations had agreed to adopt a uniform first meridian, , 
namely that passing through the observatory at Green- 
wich near London. Show that meridian is a combi- 
nation or corruption of two words, naifiely medius and 
dies; the first meaning middle, the second day, hence 
midday. Consult Webster, who says, " Varro testifies 



GEOGRAPHY. 285 

that this word was originally spelled med idles, and 
that he had seen it thus on a sun-dial." 

Now, concentration of effort will lead us to the 
question, Why should the number of parallels, as well 
as meridians, be three hundred and sixty? Mental 
arithmetic will come in for a little share of attention, 
and it is the chapter of divisibility of numbers which 
will come in handsomely. The number three hundred 
and sixty was not chosen arbitrarily, but for a good 
reason ; namely, because it can be divided bj' one, two, 
three, four, five, six, eight, nine, and ten, in fine, by 
all numbers within ten, except seven. Never mind 
whether you are the teacher of arithmetic, or not : let 
the pupils verify the statement that the number three 
hundred and sixty is divisible by the numbers men- 
tioned. It will lead them to see that all knowledge is 
more or less related ; and by thus connecting different 
branches, you assist in deepening previously gained 
cognitions, or opening vistas into other compartments 
of knowledge whose doors were locked before. 

A POSER. 

We were lookiug up on the map the boundaries of 
certain States, one day, in a C grammar class. Noti- 
cing the number of mountain ranges drawn across the 
boundary-line, or rather noticing that the line crossed 
a range of mountains, I asked, "■ Does not this bound- 
ary line in reality go up and down? In other words, 
is it not diversified by mountains and valleys?" 
Answer; *• Yes, of course." Question: " Then, how 



286 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 



is it, that the map-maker can draw the southern line of 
Pennsylvania, for instance, with the aid of a ruler?" 
That question was a poser. We turned to other 
states, the surface of which we knew was greatly 







fc. ^it^i 






..# 



diversified, and not as level as that of Illinois. Even 
the most precocious boys and girls of the class began 
to look solemn. 

I then proceeded to give them this problem : " The 
north side of a farm is perfectly level ; the south side 




is diversified by gullies and knolls. The owner intends 
to build a picket-fence both on the north and south 
sides. Question : On which side will he need the 
greater number of pickets?'' And in order to make 
the problem very clear, I hastily drew the above dia- 



GEOGBAPIIT. 



287 



gram on the board. The class agreed instantly, that, 
for building the fence on the south side, a greater 
number of pickets was needed, the distance being so 



much greater. 



Then I completed the diagram, as is shown in Fig. 3 ; 
and the astonishment of the class was a sight worth 
seeing when they discovered that the number of pickets 




was the same in both fences. I permitted them to 
laugh to their heart's content over their own mistake, 
and then I showed them the relation between this 
illustration, and the first question of the lesson ; 
namely, How can a State line be represented as a 
straight line on a flat-surfaced map, when in reality it 
is diversified by huge elevations and deep depressions? 



LIFE CONTRADICTING THE SCHOOL-MASTER. 
Are you aware, dear reader, that there is in our 
present mode of teaching geography something wholly 
incompatible with the requirements of life? One of 
the most important principles of instruction is : What- 
ever you teach, teach it with a view toward its future 
use and practicability. Heed life's demands. If you 
do not, you may be, nay will be, blamed for neglecting 



288 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

a part of your duty which is of no mean importance. 
The often-heard appeal, that the formal aim of educa- 
tion should be considered as more valuable than the 
material aim, has but an infirm foundation. It is sim- 
ply a preposterous prevarication. The great number 
of graduates who are flat failures in business, and the 
numerous cases of learned men who are as helpless 
as children in business, preach louder than the most 
eloquent apostle of modern education. 

Behind that plea, is hidden a most lamentable ped- 
agogical error. A master who requires his pupils to 
learn by heart, verbatim el literatim, one text-book 
after another, one rule after another, may plead the 
wonderful exercise it gives to the memory, may plead 
the astonishing development of this one faculty ; but 
he can never, and I believe will never, plead that 
the harmonious growth of all the pupils' faculties is 
assisted by such practice. On the contrary, the mem- 
ory, in this case, is fed at the expense of all the 
other faculties, which are thereby dwarfed and stunted. 
Besides, that the same exercise may be had by com- 
mitting all the advertisements of a daily paper, or the 
Bible read backwards, without an iota of practical use 
in after-life, perhaps, never occurs to him. 

It is one of the postulates of modern education, 
that the" memory is best developed when exercised 
indirectly. 

Behind that plea of aiding the formal part of edu- 
cation at the expense of the material and practical 
part, the master may hide himself, who exercises his 



GEOGRAPHY. 289 

pupils' ingenuity and arithmetical skill by giving them 
problems in which the price of a cow is six cents, 
and that of a beefsteak sixty dollars. I saw such a 
problem on the blackboard not long ago ; the answer 
was, " Cost of house and lot, three dollars and seven- 
teen cents." 

Now, to come to the point which I intended to bring 
out, much of what we teach in geography is useless 
ballast. For instance : It is required, in many schools, 
to burden the memory of children with an endless 
list of tributary, rivers, of little if airy importance. 
Did it ever occur to you, fair reader, that in life, in 
the intercourse with our fellow-men, we scarcely ever 
mention rivers, except when they are navigable by 
steamboats, or cause trouble by inundation? If a 
business man mentions a small river, it is perhaps 
in connection with his fishing excursion ; but ask him 
whether he would have his bo} r taught the name and 
course of that river, and his answer will be a decided 
and sharp u No," and he will invariably add, " Teach 
him more useful things than such trash." 

On the other hand, see how often we mention the 
railroads. Every newspaper reader is familiar with 
the New- York Central, the Pan Handle Route, the 
Baltimore aud Ohio, the Lake Shore and Michigan 
Southern, the Queen and Crescent Route (Cincinnati 
Southern), the Union Pacific, etc. : I need not enu- 
merate any further. Don't you think, my reader, it 
would be wiser to eliminate from our course of study 
most of those current-less, nou-navigable water-veins, 



290 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

that seem to be good only to drown a cat iu occasion- 
ally, and for a portion of the Congressional " River 
and Harbor" appropriation semi-occasionally ? Would 
it not be better to substitute the acquisition of 
knowledge regarding trunk railroads? 

Life as it is, not as it was one hundred years ago, 
requires not near as many topographical minutiae as 
text-book authors would have us believe. It seems 
to me of vast importance, that our pupils learn more 
mercantile geography. I offer this suggestion for 
what it is worth. Make the best of it. 

ONE WAY OF GETTING AT THE IDEA. 

It is well known by observant teachers, that children 
are easily confused by the great multiplicity of detail 
on wall-maps. Especially the elevations trouble them. 
The usual manner in which they are drawn is not the 
most commendable. The map-makers of Europe and 
America do not agree on a uniform treatment of this 
subject. This can be seen from the specimen pages 
of topographical maps laid before the public by Capt. 
Wheeler, the American representative at the late 
geographical congress at Venice. Among these maps, 
the manners used by the topographical engineers in 
France and Switzerland are by far the best ; and I 
must say, if I had to choose between these two, I should 
consider the French mode preferable, because it can 
be imitated in school without difficulty, while the Swiss 
manner of representing elevations necessitates skill in 
drawing and shading. In saying this I am, perhaps, 



GEOGRAPHY. 



291 



prejudiced, having used the French manner of repre- 
senting elevations for many 3'ears. I may be further 
prejudiced in my choice by the fact that the United- 
States Topographical Engineering Corps has adopted 
the French mode, and as far back as 1861 (during the 
civil war) has represented flat-surfaced maps in the 
same way. 

This French method consists in curves representing 
different altitudes, as is shown in the cut below. This 




cut can easily be copied by the teacher on the board, 
and very little explanation is needed to make it under- 
stood. The upper half is a longitudinal cross-section 
of some mountains ; the lower half represents the same 
mountains in a flat-surface map, and the vertical lines 
connecting the two parts of the cut indicate different 
altitudes. 

I believe that if the elevations on our school-maps 
were treated likewise, — that is, with curves, and per- 
haps a trifle of shading, indicating very steep eleva- 
tions,— the maps would be understood much more 



292 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT. 

readily. As they are now, they represent mountain 
ranges by scrawling figures that look like caterpillars. 
In the above cut the different curvatures represent 
water-lines, separated each by a thousand feet. 

ODD QUESTIONS ODDLY ANSWERED. 

As an instructor in a Southern State teachers' 
institute, I advised my hearers to submit some such 
questions in the study of geography as are here 
appended. Only geographical answers should be 
admitted. I was greatly pleased, when next day, 
one of my pupils handed me the answers as they are 
found below in rhyme. The author of the questions, I 
am sorry to say, is unknown to the writer. 

QUESTIONS. 

ONLY GEOGRAPHICAL ANSWERS TO BE GIVEN. 

What has a mouth, but cannot bite ? 
What has an arm, but cannot write ? 
What has a foot, but cannot walk ? 
What has a head, but cannot talk ? 
What has a bank with no money in ? 
What has a top, but cannot spin ? 
What has a neck, but has no head ? 
What never sleeps, but has a bed ? 
What hook will never catch a fish ? 
What has a basin, but not a dish ? , 
Where are the locks, keys never turn ? 
Where are the capes that are not worn ? 
What has a branch, but has no leaves ? 
What has no locks, but has some keys ? 
What always falls, but gets no scratches ? 



GEOGRAPHY. 293 



What is the ball that no one catches ? 
What is quite long, but is not tall ? 
What has a base, but plays no ball ? 
What are the poles nobody climbs ? 
Where are the boys to answer these rhymes 



9 

9 



ANSWERS. 

FURNISHED BY MRS. B. W. HARD, GRANITEVILLE, S.C. 

A river has a mouth, does it follow that it bites ? 

The salt sea has an arm, but never, never writes. 

A hill has but a single foot, and therefore cannot walk. 

A river has a head, but it takes brains to talk. 

The river's bank is broken, for it has no money in it. 

The lofty mountain has a top, but who has strength to spin it? 

The land on which we live has necks, but has no heads. 

The nuers never steep, but are restless in their beds. 

Old Sandy Hook, on Jersey shore, will never catch a fish. 

Lake Erie holds its water in a basin, not a dish. 

In Scotia's rugged land are lovely lakes or locks, sunlit K 

Along the coast of every land are capes that do not Jit. 

A river has its branches, but is not adorned with leaves. 

And Florida, our flowery land, has quite a bunch of keys. 

No scratch, no wound, Niagara gets in all its mighty fall. 

No base-ball club will take our Earth from Atlas grim and tall. 

A railroad may have any length, but has no height at all. 

A mountain is too dignified to play a game of ball. 

At North and South are poles of ice, which no one tries to climb. 

I trust Professor K will not criticise my rhyme. 

ELEMENTARY WORK.— THE ZONES. 
A teacher of the fourth primary grade asked me 
once how she could appeal to the senses when she 
taught the subject of zones. She had racked her 

1 Canal locks need uo keys. 



294 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

brain to find a suitable appellation to the children's 
experience and circle of thought. I called her atten- 
tion to the stove; saying that the room had a torrid, 
temperate, and frigid zone, and that it should not be 
difficult to make the children see that some of them 
were sitting in the torrid, others in the temperate, and 
again others in the frigid zone of the room. She 
might show it by means of the thermometer. While 
some were sitting in a temperature of 80°, the greater 
part of the pupils had the advantage of enjoying a 
medium temperature of 65°, while some poor mortals 
sitting near the windows were obliged to suffer in a 
temperature of 50°. Then I called her attention to 
the easy way in which the idea belt, relating to zones, 
might be illustrated by a chalk-mark on the floor all 
around the stove. From there to the next step 
would be easy. I suggested to her to make a very 
large circle on the board, which was to represent the 
earth, and in the right-hand upper corner a small 
circle which was to represent the sun ; then, to con- 
nect the circumference of the two circles by straight 
lines, not parallel, but diverging, to represent beams 
of light and heat. She could show, that some of the 
rays were short, others long, and thereby again 
establish the fact that the difference in distance, and 
the slant of the rays, caused the difference in tempera- 
ture ; in other words, the zones. I offer this sugges- 
tion to others. It is a simple, homely illustration, but 
it goes straight to the point. 



CHAPTER IX. 

HISTOEY OP EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER IX. 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
EDUCATION IN ROME. ■ 
(after dittes' history of education.) 

The characteristic feature of the Romans was prac- 
tical common-sense. They did not, like the Athenians 
and other Greeks, philosophize much. In all questions 
and relations of life, they searched for the practical 
side. They considered things very much in the same 
way in which the proverbial American looks at them. 
A few examples may illustrate this. 

The glorious philosophic truisms upon which the 
grand structure of our government is built, towering 
up into lofty heights, a landmark for all nations on 
the face of the earth, — these principles were not 
originated among the founders of the Union. They 
are found in the examples of ancient and mediaeval 
history, in the works of English, Dutch, German, and 
French philosophers of several centuries ago. Nor 
did the founders of the Union pretend to have discov- 
ered any thing new ; but their common-sense applied 
old truth and old experience, tested them, and found 
many of them of use. With admirable tact they 

297 



298 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

strove for the realization of the attainable ; and, with 
wise discretion, they eliminated all that was not actu- 
ally useful or applicable under existing circumstances. 
So long as the accumulated political wisdom of the 
Old World was confined within sheepskin and library 
walls, it was scarcely worth the paper upon which it 
was printed. Here, upon the virgin soil of a new 
continent, the creative spirit of the people, prompted 
by instinctive (or shall I say eminently wise?) eclec- 
ticism, realized them. 

The telegraph and the telephone, as has been proven, 
were discovered in Europe ; but the inventors, though 
highly gratified at having solved important problems, 
did not for years utilize their inventions. It w T as left 
to American inventive genius, coupled with admirable 
skill of application, to turn these, and, in fact, many 
other inventions, to account. 

Or, to come nearer the question under discussion, 
see what the American practical teacher makes of the 
profound systems and philosophic maxims of Comenius, 
Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Diesterweg. Of all the edu- 
cational advice offered by these immortal teachers, 
American eclecticism accepts just enough to flavor 
American education, as the cook squeezes a lemon to 
give flavor to a dish. I do not find fault with this, 
not at all. To comprehend a thing, means to pardon 
it ; that is to say, means to see the causes of it. 1 

1 A writer, in a recent number of the North-American Review, says, 
"We are far more Roman than English. Tndeed, the most extraordinary 
feature of the American is his un-Englishness. The chief experiences of 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 299 

This, then, is what is meant when I say the differ- 
ence between Greeks and Romans was, that the latter 
were practical. They were a matter-of-fact people ; 
while the Greeks were, to a great extent, philosophic 
dreamers. Of the culture of every nation whom the 
Romans conquered, they accepted only those features 
which seemed to them useful. They made use of the 
fruits of education and civilization of the Greeks, for 
they felt that Greek culture was vastly better than 
theirs : they felt the intellectual superiority of their 
victims. However, they adopted only so much of it as 
seemed to them compatible with their life and national 
institutions. 

The same eclecticism that had played, a great part 
through all the centuries of Roman history, up to the 
time when the Romans came into close contact with 
the Greeks, — this same eclecticism is plainly visible 
in their educational system. That which, with the 
Greeks, was end and aim, namely, the representation 

the Roman people were what ours have heen, — war, trade, and sudden 
expansion into national greatness, an expansion so rapid and immense as to 
overshadow and mar the serenity aud order of social life. Material pros- 
perity and political administration were the leading pursuits. Rome and 
America have loved luxury and pomp. Each civilization might be called a 
political success; both must be judged social failures. Rome loved the big. 
It seemed in harmony with the prodigious growth of Roman populations 
and the gigantic spread of the imperial system. Size, brute mass, the big 
figures of the census, are our pride. Like the Romans, we adore quantity. 
American civilization and taste, American life and problems, are singularly 
Roman. Discussions in Roman history as to the ratios of the precious 
metals . . . sound tiresome like the struggle . . . here and to-day. Monop- 
oly and administrative reform brought about party changes then, as they 
do now." 



300 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

of the beautiful and the good in art, was with the 
Romans a mere means for civil and political purposes. 
Thus, for instance, rhetoric. In Greece it was a great 
accomplishment to be a fine orator, not primarily for 
grand political ends. The Greeks studied oratory 
for its own sake ; the Romans, for the purpose of 
making great political conquests. 

Other arts — music, for instance — were considered 
professional occupations among the Greeks: with the 
Romans, they were accomplishments acquired for the 
purpose of filling leisure hours. 

In one thing the Romans never learned from others. 
In law they may be said to have been geniuses. The 
wonderful Roman law has found its way into the codes 
of all civilized nations, and has maintained its foot- 
hold as securely as Greek forms have in art, which are 
to this day considered the ideals of artistic beauty. 
There was nothing borrowed in Roman law : it was 
indigenous to the soil. The ambition for conquest 
made the Romans warriors, and the desire to govern 
the nations round about the then known world made 
them see to it that laws were made which would organ- 
ically combine the different and heterogeneous nations 
into one great empire. 

The two great ideas around which centred all Roman 
thought were liberty and justice. Four means were 
given to work harmoniously toward propagating these 
ideas, — religion, legislation, family, -and school. 

The education of children was a matter of family 
concern, and family life was regarded very highly. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 301 

The woman was not, as in Greece, considered too in- 
ferior to take into account. On the contrary, we find 
women highly respected. The matron, or mpther of 
the famil}', was the ruling spirit at home. The chil- 
dren were kept under her guidance till they were fifteen 
years old. Before a child was three days old, its name 
was entered upon the civil roll. Usually, festivities 
were connected with what was known as the "purifi- 
cation" and naming of the child. After seven months 
another festival was celebrated, that of the first tooth ; 
and at the end of two years, that of weaning. In fact, 
the child was considered a source of great rejoicing, 
and a cause of man}' festivities. A mother who could 
boast of well-mannered children had reason for being 
proud. It is scarcely necessary to refer to Coruelia, 
the mother of the Gracchi : she stands out in bold 
relief in the histoiy of education. 

In contemplating these laudable conditions of home- 
life, it is well, though, to remember that they existed 
only during the better part of Roman history ; namely, 
during the beautiful days of the republic. Later, when 
the republic degenerated to an oligarchy, and still 
later, when the capricious will of emperors became 
law, family life lost its sanctity. Every new victory 
over a foreign enemy gave fresh strength to the inner 
enemy. And in the same proportion in which Rome's 
outer glory increased, and the state seemed to gain 
materially and intellectually, in the same proportion 
crumbled to pieces the ancient firm foundations of the 
republic, and its simple, honest customs. Never, in 



302 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

all history, have natural cause and effect found a more 
impressive illustration, than in the decline of the 
Roman republic. 

Of all the nations with which Rome came into con- 
tact, not one has had such a destructive influence upon 
Roman institutions as the Greek nation did. And 
upon none of them have the Greeks had a greater in- 
fluence than upon Roman education, since the Romans 
ceded this domain to the Greeks at once. Seeing how 
far advanced the Greeks were in intellectual training 
and in the arts, they thought that knowledge of the 
Greek language, Greek art, Greek customs, — in short, 
Greek culture, must be taught by Greek teachers. So 
it became apparently necessary that Greek nurses, 
Greek tutors, Greek professors, Greek artists, Greek 
elocutionists, be employed ; and soon Greek vices 
entered the homes of the Roman citizens. 

During the time of Cincinnatus, Fabius, Fabricius, 
Curius, Julius Brutus, Gracchus, the home-life of the 
Romans was simplicity itself. Virtue and purity in 
words and actions were inculcated in the children. 
The boy grew up to be a temperate, gentle-mannered, 
upright man, whose veneration for father and mother 
was deep and lasting. The example of the parents 
was looked upon as the most influential medium of 
education. Yea, sometimes the father would take his 
son to public banquets, so as to be guarded by his pres- 
ence, which would prevent him from falling into bad 
habit ; for it was thought a criminal offence to commit 
a wrong in demeanor in the presence of children. 



UISTOBY OF EDUCATION. 303 

On the other hand, obedience of children to their 
elders, and reverence for old age, were expected and 
enforced. Traditions of the great and noble deeds 
of the forefathers, of Scaevola, of Curius, etc., were 
handed down from race to race. They were sung to 
the accompaniment of the flute, and the boys would 
sit and listen with bated breath to these lays of heroic 
deeds. 

The boy was taught by his father till he was fifteen 
years of age. The Greek custom of giving the boys 
a mentor — that is, a trusted slave as guide — soon 
found favor with the Romans. Later, this guide, 
called custos, was made the teacher of gymnastics and 
the elementary branches. During his boyhood the 
boy wore the toga prcetexta (boy's garment) ; when 
he became a youth he was permitted to wear a man's 
garment, the toga virilis. It was the custom to send 
the youth out of the house, and to give him into the 
guardianship of a kinsman who practised law. This 
lawyer initiated him into the intricacies of Roman 
law. And two years later, after he had completed 
his seventeenth year, he was permitted to enter the 
army. As far back as 400 B.C., the Romans had 
schools for those who could not defray the expenses 
of private tutors ; but these schools were private enter- 
prises, not common schools. Much later, public schools 
came into existence ; and since they were kept on the 
highways, market-places, and cross-roads, they were 
called schools in triviis. Our term "trivial" is de- 
rived from the word triviis (three ways — crossroads) . 



304 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE BAY. 

In nothing can the difference between Roman and 
Greek spirit be comprehended better than in the selec- 
tion and treatment of the different branches of study. 
All instruction was gauged by its utility. In the 
humanizing influence of Greek gymnastics, the Romans 
could not believe. They accepted and adopted only 
so much of it as seemed necessary to strengthen the 
body, and make it fit for military service. All the 
beautiful exercises of the Greeks — wrestling, throw- 
ing of discos, etc. — was left to professional athletes, 
called gladiators, who were slaves. The Roman boys' 
play even had reference to practical utility. Upon the 
Mars Field military exercises were held, and the Tiber 
River afforded opportunity for exercises in swimming. 
Musical practice was despised by the Romans ; dancing 
prohibited, except for slaves who were hired to make 
music and to dance for the amusement of their masters 
or the public. 

Of the mathematics, the Romans taught only practi- 
cal arithmetic, and of geometiy only so much as related 
to mensuration. 1 Besides reading, writing, and arith- 
metic, Roman history and mythology were taught. 
But, singular as it may seem, the Greek language and 
rhetoric were considered the most necessary branches 
of study. From the time of the conquest of Greece, 
Grecian philosophers and professors migrated to 
Italy, and opened schools there for the purpose of 
interpreting their classic writers. Later, grammatical 

1 European teachers accuse us American teachers of giving too much 
attention to dollars and cents problems in arithmetic. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 305 

instruction became a conditio sine qua non of Roman 
education. 

Thus we see, that, though the Romans had con- 
quered the Greeks politically, the latter conquered the 
Romans intellectually. 

Since there were actually only two honorable profes- 
sions among the Romans, — namely, those of warriors 
and statesmen, — it is easily seen that all their educa- 
tional efforts were directed toward perfection in these 
two professions. All the many thousands of other 
occupations and pursuits were left to slaves, to the 
Greeks, and other foreigners ; in fact, to any one who 
had a mind to work. Even the physicians were 
Greeks. 

The most powerful and influential school of the 
high-born, or wealthy Roman, was life itself. His 
knowledge of law and politics he gained very much in 
the same way in which American lawyers and politi- 
cians gain their knowledge. (Who does not recognize 
the same thing in our modern worship of the self-made 
man?) It was customary with the young Roman to 
attend court on the Forum, and thus to study law in 
the most practical way possible. In case he desired 
to become a military leader, he attached himself to a 
commander in the field ; and since the Romans were 
always at war with somebody, opportunites for a bril- 
liant military career were seldom wanting. Not that 
the Roman youth received much systematic military 
training. Xo : what he learned, he learned by keeping 
his eyes open, and by dire experience. Just so the 



306 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

statesman learned his profession ; namely, in the com- 
pany of some renowned lawyer, with whom he visited 
the public assemblies and court-sessions. Circumspec- 
tion, sharp penetration, ready wit, and sound judgment 
are all qualities which no book-wisdom will develop. 

It is evident that Roman and Greek education, 
though repulsing each other in some ways, completed 
each other in others. For pure humanity, the ideal 
of the Greek and the practical proficiency of the 
Roman are but the two sides of one and the same 
educational purpose, namely, harmonious development. 
Neither the Greek one-sided philosophic education, 
nor the Roman one-sided practical training, could save 
the nation from the inevitable degeneration, nor could 
either one prolong its national spirit. 

And soon came the end, — the glory of the empire. 
What else was it but the lustre of an imitation jewel? 
As rotten wood will shine forth in phosphorescent rays, 
so the Roman Empire, though brilliant in all outward 
appearances, was rotten to the core. The excavated 
walls of Pompeii bear witness to such shameful atro- 
cities that they seem to us incredible. No author had 
the courage to chronicle them. Only the brushes and 
colors of artists proved to be vile enough for the occa- 
sion. How must such examples of vice and corruption 
have taken effect on youthful 'dispositions ! 

When, with the downfall of the republic, public life 
lost its significance, education became a mere outer 
polish. Practical utility, even, became impractical. 
The emperor's will became law, and his favor made 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 307 

military leaders ; and even the senators owed their 
elevation to him. The forms of Roman education 
remained the same ; but they were without substance, 
empty and hollow. Words and appearances sufficed, 
when truth and action were wanting. But, in order 
to keep up appearances, many more artificial means 
are needed. Education in Rome, during the time of 
the emperors, resembled a woman who has lost the 
beauty of youth, and tries to deceive the world by 
applying cosmetics, and even deadly poison, to cover 
up the irreparable loss. 

Education in Rome soon degenerated to teaching 
sophistry, flattering speech, affectation in oratory, 
threshing of empty grammatical straw ; in short, to 
artificiality in the worst comprehension of the term. 
Instruction was restricted to an interpretation of the 
classics. The method was mechanical ; the discipline 
strict, harsh, and unfree. The golden era of Roman 
history was also the golden era of Roman education. 
The only portion of the Roman educational system 
which survived were the law-schools. They flourished 
even during the darkest period of Roman history,— 
a fact which explains itself. 

THE ANCIENT GERMANS. 

A CHAPTER FROM THE HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION AND 
EDUCATION. 

When the Roman Empire began to unfold its great- 
est glory in conquests and politics, at the same time 
exhibiting the first signs of decay, we see the Germanic 



308 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

tribes coming from the East and North, entering upon 
the historic stage. We see them wrestle for several 
centuries with the colossal empire, which had suc- 
ceeded in subjecting almost the whole of the then 
known world, until at last the Roman giant suc- 
cumbed and fell into fragments, upon which German 
tribes erected their thrones. 

The Germans changed the map of Europe so com- 
pletely, and proved themselves so invincible, so won- 
derfully powerful, that it is worth while to inquire 
into their mode of living, or, better, into their educa- 
tional efforts. For we must never leave the fact out 
of sight, that the beneficial educational influence of a 
people, upon its own younger generations, is the main 
source of its national strength. 

First, it may be stated what the fundamental differ- 
ences were, between the ancient nations, and the Ger- 
manic races whose ideas revolutionized the world. 

(a) The ancient Orientals had a despotic govern- 
ment, in which the individual counted for nothing. 
Look at the Tower of Babel, at the Pyramids of Egypt. 
Think of the millions of hands that were directed by 
a mere gesture of an all-powerful despot. Think of 
the mass-murder of men and children, and you will 
understand the saying: " The individual counted for 
nothing." 

(b) Then we have the queer republican government 
of the classic nations, in which the state was towering 
high above all individual rights. All powers were 
derived from the state. The Roman was not an 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. .309 

individual man ; he was a citizen first. Yes, Roman 
patriotism superseded the laws of humanity ; the 
citizens of Rome were Romans always, right or wrong. 
They were Romans first, Romans last, Romans forever, 
(c) When the Germanic tribes entered upon the 
stage of history, they brought with them the wonder- 
ful new idea, that a man was a human being first, 
then a citizen. They asserted that the human being 
had individual rights not depending upon the state. 
The state, they claimed, was, and never could be any 
thing else than, a combination of individuals for com- 
mon protection and welfare. The unity in the state 
was the individual; and, his rights being inborn, they 
must be recognized even in the child. 

Never has this idea had a more illustrious inter- 
pretation, than when, fifteen hundred } T ears afterward, 
Jefferson framed it in these words : "We hold these 
truths to be self-evident: that all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that to secure 
these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the 
governed ; that whenever any form of government 
becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the 
people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, 
and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. " 

That declaration has a most refreshing fragrance, 



310 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

and forms a marked contrast to the musty ideas of 
the ancients. And this idea of individual self-depend- 
ence, and independence from others, was born into 
the world at a time when the Germanic tribes began 
to invade the Roman Empire. 

The declining nations, at the beginning of our era, 
were in despair. Their political convictions became 
confused, their religious foundations were violently 
shaken by the all-powerful new gospel of Christ, the 
man, yet Son of God. What was wanting, and what 
they sought, was individuality. The reader will please 
not shake his head at this sentence. There is more in 
it than appears at the first glance. 

The individuality is conscious of its own needs, 
physically, mentally, and morally. A being who has 
no individuality, no self-dependence, no self-reliance, 
no character, of his own, but derives his strength, his 
value, his faith, his mode of thinking and acting, in 
fact, his very essence, from the state, from the caprice 
of a monarch, from a tyrant, from an autocrat, — I 
say, such a person loses himself, his individuality ; his 
very fountain of strength dries up. 

A new power had to come at the beginning of our 
era, — a flood of new humanity to sweep the cor- 
rupted state away, and create a new consciousness. 
And it came. The Germanic tribes swept over the 
ancient world, and brought with them a new idea, — 
the idea of individuality and individual independence. 
As sequences of this idea we find among the Germanic 
tribes, (1) respect for personality, (2) free acknowl- 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 311 

edgmeot of the claims of woman, (3) loyalty to the 
leader chosen by themselves, (4) loyalty to friends, 
or the idea of fellowship. These features should be 
carefully noted, because from them arose the feudalism 
of the Middle Ages. 

What Roman writers tell us of the education of the 
Germans expresses only the emancipation of individu- 
ality, which, in its immediate erudeness, had no other 
form in which to manifest itself than wars for con- 
quest. To the Roman there was something demoniac 
in the Germau. He was not an obedient slave of a 
leader, but a man who stood for himself and his kin, 
a man who believed himself the descendant of a god. 
The Roman dimly perceived in him his future master. 
When the Romans were to meet the Cimbri and Teu- 
tons on the battle-field, their commanders had first to 
accustom them to the terrible sight of the wild, giant- 
like forms and fearless eyes of the Germans. 

But again we see the all-powerful influence of civ- 
ilization and culture. The Goths, those wonderful 
Germans who crushed the Roman Empire, and con- 
quered Italy, were barbarians. When the hosts of 
Germans poured into the Roman Empire, they con- 
quered it with little trouble, because its inhabitants 
were a degenerated race. And yet how much was to 
be learned from these effeminate people ! religion, 
philosophy, literature, industry, art, and, curious 
enough, even warfare, — in short, every thing. 

And the German hero sat down on the school-bench 
of his slave, and began to learn. And the slave made 



312 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

use of this opportunity for revenge, and maliciously 
told his conqueror that his gods were devils, and his 
beloved heroes mean rowdies, with which decent peo- 
ple could not associate; for Hercules and Achilles, 
Joshua and Gideon, these were the right heroes. And 
if he did not tell him so to his face, the simple-minded 
barbarian felt something of the kind. 

His heart was true, his strength invincible, his 
sense of justice uncorrupted, his language a wonderful 
source of everlasting rejuvenation, his whole being 
as different from the cowardly Roman as a demigod 
is different from a vile creature. Yet the refined cul- 
ture of the ancients triumphed, and to-day no traces 
are left of the Goths, neither in Italy nor in Spain. 
As Grecian culture triumphed over the Romans, so 
Roman intellect triumphed over the Germans. 

Education among the ancient Germans was in har- 
mony with the character of the people, and With their 
political and religious institutions. The Germans 
were a people with a deeply rooted sense of freedom. 
True, this sense was, to a certain extent, egotistical. 
There were masters and servants ; but even these serfs 
were not without certain rights, which no free-born 
man was likely to disregard. The free-born Germans 
had such a strong feeling of independence, that all 
their political institutions shaped themselves to give 
expression to this individual independence. " Help 
yourself," is not an American proverb, but it was a 
proverb when Herrmann slew the Roman legions in 
the Teutoburger Forest in the year 9 after Christ. 



HISTORY of education: 313 

The proverb, " Self is man," became the ground law 
of communities and larger political divisions. Every 
single man's independence was religiously guarded ; 
no one dared to interfere with his private affairs. 
Every village, every tribe, every combination of tribes, 
was independent and self-dependent in all matters 
pertaining to its own welfare. But in greater under- 
takings, — in war, for instance, — the Germans subor- 
dinated themselves readily to the leader, and with 
faithfulness they followed him to victory or death. 
This is the cause that we see an unruly obstinacy and 
assertion of independence in communities, and at the 
same time a fervent devotion and absolute obedi- 
ence in following the leader as often as their sacred 
soil is in danger. The Romans had conquered all 
the then known nations, but they never conquered the 
Germans. 

Among the chief virtues of the Germans were hospi- 
tality, and magnanimity toward friend and foe. The 
Germans fought their battles themselves ; they never 
hired mercenaries. Cowardliness was unknown among 
them. The person of the free-born was sacred before 
the law ; he could neither be corporally punished, nor 
sentenced to death. 

Every hearth was an altar. • " My house is my 
castle," said the Anglo-Saxon, also a German. Fam- 
ily life was sacred ; and one of the laws peculiar to 
the Germanic tribes was that woman had the right 
to her own possessions, and to bequeath them at her 
free will. Children were a source of great pride and 



314 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

happiness to the parents, and the more children there 
were in a family, the better ; for with the number of 
children and relatives grew the influence and strength 
of the family. 

The objects of educational efforts were to rear a 
race strong and healthy in body, brave and skilful in 
the use of weapons, mild-tempered, true-hearted, open- 
handed, charitable, faithful unto death, truth-loving, 
economical, and diligent. 

New-born babes were dipped into water, and hard- 
ened against the influence of the weather. Though 
the climate of Germany is much the same as ours, 
children were left to play out-doors naked the greater 
part of the year. We can only understand this if we 
remember that all of Germany was then one great 
forest, only broken by small clearings along the water- 
courses. To the woods we may attribute the even- 
ness and mildness of the climate. 

When the boys grew up they went out hunting, or 
followed their father and relatives into war. Their 
most cherished play was the spear dance, in which the 
girls participated. In fact, in all their amusements, 
in all their educational efforts, both sexes participated. 
The mother was greatly respected, and a child who 
did not obey her implicitly and cheerfully was not 
known. The women vied with the men in size, 
strength, and skill in handling weapons. Riding, 
swimming, dancing, running, were practised equally 
by both sexes. It was one of the unwritten laws, 
that the man desirous of marrying must seek a woman 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 315 

of equal age and strength. Of course Cupid not 
unfrequently broke this law. 

Thus, then, were the Germans at the beginning of 
the Christian era. They had no schools. Especially 
gifted persons sought instruction among the priests. 
These had very original script-forms, — the so-called 
Runen cut into the bark of sticks. Very few could 
read and write. But there was one thing in which they 
were masters, and in which none of the ancients, not 
even the Greeks, could compete with them : I mean 
music . 

It may be truly said that music was introduced first 
into Europe by the Germanic tribes, when they came 
in great swarms from Central Asia, from which place 
all the nations of Europe came. The history of Ger- 
man warriors was sung by bards ; the}' kept alive 
the ancient traditions, and thus aided in educating the 
young. Everybody practised singing, yea, even their 
dances were sung by the surrounding crowds. Before 
a battle the Germans would sing in chorus to inspire 
themselves to heroic deeds. 

AN INTERVIEW BETWEEN PESTALOZZI AND 
DR. BELL. 

[Translated from -Pestalozziblatter.] 

Perhaps it is not generally known that the inventor 
of monitorial teaching, Dr. Andrew Bell, 1 once visited 

1 Dr. Bell, when principal of a school at Madras, Hindostan (1795), be- 
came the founder of what is known in the history of education as monitorial 
teaching. He was afterward with Joseph Lancaster, in England, its most 



316 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Pestalozzi's institution at Yverdun. The biographical 
notes about Bell, which are found in Schmid's Peda- 
gogical Cyclopedia, do not mention his journey on the 
Continent ; nor is this journey mentioned by Hamel, 
Zschokke, and other authors who have written about 
the Bell-Lancaster method. Neither is this meeting 
mentioned in any of the numerous books on Pesta- 
lozzi's life and teachings. Luger merely mentions 
Bell as one of the visitors at Yverdun. W. H. 
Ackermann, one of the pupils of Pestalozzi, and sub- 
sequently teacher in the model school at Fraukfort- 
on-the-Main, describes this visit of Bell very fully. 
The elate is not accurately stated, but from the con- 
cluding passage of the description it may be inferred 
that it was in the year 1816, — the same year in 
which Pater Girard introduced monitorial instruction 
in Switzerland. The report of Ackermann, which has 
become exceedingly rare, is here reproduced as a con- 
tribution to the Pestalozzian literature. We quote : — 

" Soon Dr. Bell followed us in our journe}'. He 
was desirous to make the acquaintance of the great 
competitor of his fame upon the field of education ; 
and, practical as he was, he thought he might perhaps 
succeed in gathering up a few suggestions suitable to 
be utilized in his own system. 

" Since he could neither speak German nor French, 
he asked me to be his interpreter with Pestalozzi. I 

enthusiastic apostle. He died in 1832. The method is also known as the 
Bell-Lancaster method. Its main feature was, that the pupils of the higher 
grades taught those of the lower. Out of this has grown the present system 
of pupil-teachers in England. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 317 

consented cheerfully, since I hoped to find the best 
opportunity, perhaps not to convince him, but at least 
to furnish proof, of what I told him in England of 
Pestalozzi. 

" Circumstances were favorable. A public examin- 
ation was being conducted in the institution during 
the time of Bell's presence. I did not leave Bell's 
side, but remained with him, translating, explaining, 
calling his attention to every thing which I thought 
might be of interest to him. However, nothing 
seemed to please him; only when, at the close of 
the examination, military exercises were conducted, 
some expression of approval, was heard from his 
lips. 

" Since we thought he might perhaps not have had 
a proper opportunity to fully comprehend the real 
essence of the methods of instruction in the institu- 
tion, because the instruction was as much as possible 
developing (heuristic) , we brought some boys to him, 
and asked him to examine them himself. He de- 
manded that they should solve the Pythagorean prob- 
lem. One of the boys solved it, but Bell said his 
solution was not the right one ; they taught another 
one in the English schools. The boy said he could 
prove it in another way ; and the other boys replied 
that they, too, knew other solutions. I believe the 
boys themselves had found more than twelve different 
solutions of this geometrical problem. We induced 
the boys to furnish some of them, in order to see 
whether the English one was among them. However, 



318 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TUB BAY. 

Bell continued to shake his head : the one taught in 
the English schools, he said, was the best. 

"Thus it seemed impossible to give to the great 
pedagogue, who seemed boxed up in his own system, 
as much as an idea of the truth, that, instead of giving 
his pupils an immense number of receipts, it was 
immeasurably better to develop their thinking power 
and power of application, so that in different circum- 
stances in life they might be enabled to help them- 
selves ; in other words, to write their own receipts. 

"For the following day a second meeting was ar- 
ranged, in which Pestalozzi and Bell were expected 
to exchange their ideas of public education, and in 
which Bell desired to illustrate his system practically. 
All the teachers present in the castle, all the strangers 
and notables in the city, flocked together to hear this 
noteworthy discussion, which, it was hoped, would not 
be without important results. For there would stand 
face to face the two most noted and dissimilar school- 
men of their time, — two schoolmasters of world 
renown, as diametrically opposed to each other in 
their principles as well as in their finances. The 
one had become poor more than once in the attempt 
to realize his ideals for the benefit of mankind : the 
other had received for similar labor, for the advance- 
ment of the English High Church, an annual salary of 
two thousand pounds (other biographers say four 
thousand pounds). 

"Pestalozzi began to unfold his principles with all 
the ingenuity at his disposal, witn all the lucidity which 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 319 

translation into a foreign language would permit. But 
this did not have any better result with Dr. Bell than 
the one mentioned before. Pestalozzi, for instance, 
spoke -of exciting the activity of children, and among 
other things said that he would make very little, if an}', 
use of ambition as a motive power, because that was 
very frequently too powerful and too easily over- 
excited. He would use purer motives ; as, for in- 
stance, love for duty, parents, teachers, and, above all 
things, interest in the subject matter. This latter, he 
suggested, should be gained by methods of teaching 
suitable to the pupil's individuality. Pestalozzi be- 
came quite eloquent on this subject. But the old 
answer came again : all that was very nice, but he, Bell, 
went further, because this powerful lever, ambition, or 
1 this powerful engine ' as he termed it, was the very 
foundation upon which his system rested. 

' w This he proceeded to show practically. Pestalozzi 
withdrew to his sofa, and the gentlemen present were 
placed upon the three sides of a square drawn with 
chalk on the floor ; on the fourth side Bell stood him- 
self, with his interpreter. 

" And now began a most ridiculous contention about 
trifles, and about a number of unessential things ; as, 
for instance, when some one stopped in reading, or did 
not hold his book straight, or let it fall, or did not 
stand straight, or in moving up or down in the line 
walked in front of instead of behind the others, — then 
the master would show himself in his glory. In a 
similar manner arithmetic, and even religion, — that 



320 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

is, the catechism, — were treated in the dryest and 
most mechanical manner. For instance, ' God created 
the world. Who created the world? what did God 
create? ' etc., ad nauseam. 

"I turned around to Pestalozzi, curious to see how 
he was impressed with this kind of teaching. He lay 
on the sofa, and chewed the end of his necktie, as he 
was wont to do when he had one an, which was only 
on festive occasions. Whether he did it now from 
pleasure or disgust with what he saw and heard, I am 
unable to say ; for he remained ominously silent. 

"Next day Bell departed for Freiburg, in order to 
visit the flourishing educational institutions founded by 
Pater Girard, who was afterwards removed by the 
Jesuits. I accompanied him. Before Bell left Frei- 
burg, he took me aside, saying, ' Well, now I have 
seen the method of your Pestalozzi. Believe me, in 
twelve years from now nobody will speak of it ; but 
mine will have spread all over the globe. Come back 
with me to England. You will make your fortune. 
With Pestalozzi's maxims and mode of teaching you 
will never succeed.' " 

It is now seventy years since Bell predicted this ; 
and who knows any thing of Bell now ? and who be- 
lieves in the efficacy of his method? 

PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS SEVENTY YEARS AGO. 

When Gust. Fr. Dinter became superintendent of 
the schools of Eastern Prussia (his office was at 
Konigsberg on the Baltic) , he found the schools in a 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 321 

deplorable condition ; and with true insight into what 
is needed most in effecting an improvement of the 
schools, namely better teachers, he set out to work 
that memorable cure which has become a matter of 
histoiy, and the effects of which are noticeable even 
to this da\\ He tells almost incredible things to illus- 
trate the low standard of the teachers of his province. 

One of these teachers believed that the Daughter of 
Zion had been a } T oung woman of rather questionable 
repute, living somewhere about the palace of Solomon. 
Another, who had to teach "religion" (as German 
teachers in public schools do even now), told his 
pupils that the Kapernaum River emptied into Lake 
Genezareth. A third claimed that there were wild 
sheep in the woods of Prussia, commonly called deer. 
A fourth cared naught for the contradiction of his 
advanced pupils when he claimed it possible to 
slaughter seven and one-half sheep, or drive that 
many to pasture. A fifth made sixteen mistakes in 
spelling in four lines. A sixth, a discharged speci- 
men, complained in a petition to the king that the 
township Wandlaken had defrauded him of 200,570 
dollars. Dinter was commissioned to investigate the 
case. First he thought the man crazy ; but he soon 
discovered that the man had just cause for complaint, 
that he, however, really only claimed 275 dollars due 
him. The man wrote 200 and 5 and 70 thus : 200,570. 

In Memel, Dinter inspected a school one dny. and 
found that the pupils were remarkably swift in solving 
problems in mental arithmetic ; indeed, so rapidly did 



322 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

one answer follow the other, that his suspicion was 
aroused. He stepped nearer the platform, and noticed 
that a boy raised his hand before a question was given 
out. Dinter asked, "Why do you raise your hand 
before you know the question?" — "Oh, I know 
what's coming," said the boy innocently. "I am 
glad to make your acquaintance," said Dinter, turning 
to the teacher. "There is evidently method in this 
madness." In a large class of girls Dinter found not 
a single pupil who felt it impossible to draw a four- 
cornered circle. In another a pupil gave it as his 
opinion that Jesus' chief occupation had been to 
conduct other people's lawsuits. 

One day he spent some time in a school where he 
observed a wholesale slaughter of innocent minds by 
mechanical drill and dead routine. Yet, despite the 
stultifying procedure, he found a few bright pupils 
who seemed to make progress, not because they were 
thus taught, but despite it. When the teacher accom- 
panied Dinter to the gate, the latter turned and said 
he had made a delightful discovery in his school. Of 
course the teacher expected to hear a compliment, 
and said smiling, "May I ask what it is?" Dinter's 
answer was, " I have observed that human reason has 
a remarkably tough life : you do all in your power to 
knock common-sense on the head with a club, but it 
seems to live on in spite of that." 

One day Dinter took dinner at a hotel-table, and 
was much annoyed by an aristocratic land-owner who 
seemed bent upon forcing his narrow views upon 



HISTORY 6f EDUCATION. 323 

modest Mr. Dinter. Said he, "Mr. Inspector, you 
are acting contrary to God's intentions, and the welfare 
of the country, by trying to elevate the common people 
to a higher level of existence. God, Nature, and the 
Government have destined them to perform purely 
mechanical drudgery. If you teach them to think, 
you revolutionize the world, and sin against the dictates 
of common prudence as well as divine law." Dinter 
did not feel like philosophizing with this narrow mind 
while he carved his steak, and therefore only said, 
"We will discuss that afterward. Let us talk about 
stock-raising. You have only recently bought that 
extensive farm, but }'ou seem to have learned a good 
deal of live stock already." — "How do } t ou know 
that?" asked the farmer. " Why," said Dinter with 
a cunning smile, "you seem to know already, that, 
to make a bull a good beast of draught, he must be 
castrated . ' ' Tableau . 

REFORMERS AND PROMOTERS OF EDUCATION 
DURING THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 

42-100 A.D. — M. Fabius Quintilianus of Spain ; in 
Rome from 69 A.D. Law}*er, educator of emperors 
and princes ; public teacher of oratory. Was the first 
teacher who received a salary from the State. His 
twelve books upon rhetoric contaiu numerous wise 
sayings with reference to the education of the young. 

330-378. — Basilius the Great, bishop of Caesarea 
in Cappadocia, Asia Minor. Made educational practice 
a duty of monks. 



324 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

About 470. — Marcianus Felix Capella in Africa, 
author of " Satyricon," which remained a text-book 
of the seven arts for more than one hundred years. 

470-563. — Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus in Ra- 
venna, Italy, chancellor of the Gothic kingdom in 
Italy ; later, a monk. With Boetius, the founder of 
the so-called scholastic method. His book upon the 
various branches of study remained a text-book all 
through the Middle Ages. Historian of the Goths. 

475-524. — Boetius in Rome, author of many school- 
books, also of " Consolation of Philosophy." A fine 
psychologist. 

719-799. — Sturm in Bavaria, a favorite of Bishop 
Bonifacius. Founder of the famous convent school 
at Fulda, which contributed more toward spreading 
Christianity in Europe than any other school. 

735-804. — Alcuin in York, first rector of a school 
in England ; afterward called to the court of Charle- 
magne, where he became rector of the noted " Schola 
Palatina." Introduced instruction in the classic lan- 
guages in Western Europe. 

776-856. — Rhabanus Maurus, rector at Fulda, is 
called the first teacher of Germany. Boys' school sep- 
arated from the convent. His principle, " individual 
instruction." 

806-849. — Walofried Strabo, abbot of the convent 
at Reichenau, in Lake Constance, Switzerland. His 
journal, the most important source of information 
reo-ardins: education of his time. A famous teacher 
and much-quoted author. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 325 

810-890. — Joli. Scotus Erigena, rector of the 
above-mentioned " Schola Palatina" renewed the fame 
of this school under the reign of Charles the Bald. 

1097-1141. — Hugo of St. Victor, in Paris; author 
of " Didascalium " (text-book) , used extensively. 

1206-1264. — Vincent of Beauvots, a French Domin- 
ican monk. Author of a famous book on the educa- 
tion of princes and nobles; also of the "Mirror," a 
philosophical treatise. 

1340-1384. — Gerhard Groote, monk in Deventer, 
Holland, made it the duty of his order to establish 
schools, and take care of the poor. Improved method 
of teaching Latin. 

1407-1458. — MapJiceus Vegius of Lodi, Italy, 
worked in Rome. Author of six books on the educa- 
tion of children, the greatest work on education ever 
written in Italy. 

1443-1485. — Johannes Agricola (Hausmann) in 
Holland, noted teacher in Heidelberg and Worms. 
Prepared many teachers of great renown. 

1467-1536. — Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, 
lived in Basle, Switzerland. Great influence upon 
methods of education; published "Adagio" and 
"Colloquia," also "Methods of Study," all noted 
educational works. 

1483-1546. — Martin Luther, born atEisleben, Thu- 
ringia ; professor in the University of Wittenberg ; 
reformer of the Church ; founder of common schools 
for both sexes ; translator of the Bible into New High 
German ; wrote a catechism, a primer, and was very 



326 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

influential in awakening a desire for education among 
the people. 

1484-1531. — Ulrich Zwingli, one of the reformers 
of the Church ; founded common schools, and wrote 
a treatise on education of boj'S. 

1485-1558. — Jdliann BugenJiagen, introduced the 
common school in Northern Germany. 

1490-1556. — Valentin Friedland Trotzendorf, rector 
of the famous model school at Goldberg. 

1497-1560. — Philipp Melanclithon, Bretten in Ba- 
den, one of the reformers of the Church, called u Prce- 
ceptor Germanics;" reviver of philology; author of 
renowned text-books. 

1499-1582. — TJwmas Platter (Wallis) in Switzer- 
land, rector at Basle. His autobiography is the chief 
source of information concerning the education of his 
time. 

1503-1558. — Jacob Micyllus, Frankfort-on-the Main, 
worked at Heidelberg ; noted pupil of Melanchthon ; 
laid stress upon understanding the classical writers, — 
that is, the substance rather than the language. 

1507-1589. — John Sturm, rector at Strasburg ; the 
most noted and independent practical educator of his 
time ; taught the idea that the classical studies should 
be pursued for the sake and benefit of religion, claim- 
ing that they had value in themselves ; is still quoted 
when the formal aid of education is defended. 

1515-1572. — Petrus Ramus, France; reformer of 
French schools ; insisted upon general culture in con- 
tradistinction to mere language instruction. 



HISTORY OF EBV CATION. 327 

i516-1580. — Hieronymus Wolf, rector at Augsburg. 
Principle : " School has accomplished all it can do, if it 
succeeds in teaching its pupils to educate themselves." 

1533-1592. — Michel de Montaigne, French author; 
of great influence in giving education better aims: 
(1) body and soul to be harmoniously developed ; (2) in 
mental discipline, practice should be more prominent 
than memory work. 

1571-1635. — Wolfgang Ratich(iits), born in Koe- 
then, Thuringia, Germany. Called the founder of 
" the new method; " not mechanical drill, but devel- 
opment and practice of the thinking faculty. Friend 
of Baco de Verulam, whose revolutionary ideas he em- 
bodied in a memorial addressed to all the princes of 
Germany. Introduced instruction in German into the 
higher schools of Germany side by side with Latin. 
The first who emphatically claimed teaching to be an 
art. 

1586-1654. —Joh. Valentin Andrae. Reformer of 
schools in Wurtemberg, Germany. Claimed that the 
mother-tongue should predominate over Latin, and 
that it should be taught rationally. 

1592-1671. —Joh. Amos Comenius, born at Comnia, 
Moravia. Bishop of the Church' of the Brethren at 
Lissa, Poland. Father of modern educational science 
based upon psychological principles. " Nihil est in 
intellectu quod non fuerit in sensu.' ' Author of ' ' Orbis 
Pictus." Education has the purpose of making the 
human beiug happy by harmonious mental and moral 
development. 



328 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

1600-1669. — Joh. Michel Moscherosch. Empha- 
sized Christian home training. 

1610-1661. — Joh. Balthasar Schuppius, Hamburg, 
Germany. Promoter of popular education. 

1635-1705. — Philipp Jacob Spener, Germany. 
Reviver of true Christian spirit in school ; introduced 
better methods for religious instruction ; opposed 
orthodoxy. 

1651-1715. — Fenelon, Frangois de Salignac de la 
Mothe. Archbishop of Cambray, France ; tutor of 
Louis XIV. 's grandchildren. Author of the well-known 
juvenile book, " The Adventures of Telemaque." 

1655-1728. — Christopher Thomas {ins) at Halle, 
Germany. Advocated the use of the mother-tongue 
in instruction in science. Noted advocate of freedom 
of thought. 

1661-1731. — Daniel Defoe, England. Worked in 
favor of rational education by writing the immortal 
children's book, "Robinson Crusoe" (1719); advo- 
cated, also, religious liberty. 

1661-1 741 . — Charles Rollin. Distinguished French 
educational author. 

1 662-1 742. — Richard Bentley, England. Most dis- 
tinguished promoter of modern science of archaeology. 

1663-1727. — Aug. Herm. Francke, Halle, Ger- 
many. Founder of orphan-asylum and extensive 
schools for the poor. One of the most noted expo- 
nents of Christian charity. 

1669-1740. — Christopher Sender, Halle, Germany. 
Founder of the first scientific high school (so-called 
Mealschule) . 



HISTOBY OF EDUCATION. 329 

1693-1735. — Joli. Jacob Rambach, in Jena and 
Giessen. The first German professor of pedagogy. 

1707-1781. — Joli. Aug. Ernest i, in Leipzig. One 
of the most noted and successful schoolmasters of his 
time. " Humanism (as combination of classical and 
scientific studies) to be the foundation of high-school 
instruction." 

1712-1778. — Jean Jacques Rousseau, of Geneva. 
Depicted in his "Emile " (1757) the ideal of an edu- 
cation based upon pure reason, presupposing impossi- 
ble " natural conditions " and aiming at "naturalism." 
Complete denial of pedagogic principles and traditions 
of the past. Rousseau's influence cannot be traced 
to have been directly beneficial ; but the thoughts he 
awakened, and the actions to which he spurred others, 
will place him in the foreground of the history of 
education. 

1713-1797. — Joli. Fr. Flattkh, in Wurtemberg, 
Germany. A most original educator, of Christian 
spirit ; aimed at bringing out the individuality of the 
child ; discipline the essence of education. 

1723-1790. — Joli. Bernhard Basedow, Dessau, 
Thuringia, Germany. Founder of the " Philanthrop- 
inism." His principle was, that school must aim at a 
general human development, bring out what is human 
in man. Chiefly acted from the standpoint of utilita- 
rianism. TThat Dr. Bell was in England, Basedow 
ma} T be said to have been in Germany ; to wit, a rep- 
resentative of educational charlatanism. 

1724-1788. — Joli. Ignaz von Felbiger, the founder 
of Catholic people's schools in Austria. 



330 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

1724-1793. A. Fr. Buesehing, in Berlin. Educa- 
tional author, and founder of geographical instruction. 

1725-1806. Fr. Gabriel Resewitz, Germany. Em- 
phasized the necessity of establishing special schools 
for the practical preparation of tradesmen and farmers. 

1726-1804. Chr. Felix Weisse, Germany. Noted 
writer of juvenile literature, such as " The Children's 
Friend." 

1729-1 790. Samuel Heinike, Hamburg and Leipzig, 
Germany. Inventor of a method of teaching deaf- 
mutes to speak. 

1729-1812. Christ. Gottlieb Ileyne, in Gottingen, 
Germany. The greatest philologist of his time. 
Teacher of numerous noted schoolmen. 

1734-1805. Fr. Eberhard von Bochoiv, Germany. 
Reformer of rural schools. 

1735-1811. Robert Raikes, England. Founder of 
schools for the lowest strata of society ; particularly 
noted for establishing Sunday schools. 

1744-1811. Christ. Gotthilf Salzmann, Germany. 
Founder of the world-renowned educational institution 
at Sclmepfenthal, in which the purified principles of 
Rousseau and Basedow were applied. Fertile author. 

1745-1818. Ernst Christ. Trapp, Germany. With 
Salzmann and Campe, chief advocate of purified phil- 
anthropinism. 

1745-1822. Valentin Hauy, France. Established 
the first asylum and school for the blind in Paris, 
1784. 

1746-1818. Joachim Heinrich Campe, Germany. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 331 

Noted author of juvenile literature. "Robinson 
Crusoe the Younger." 

1746-1827. Joh. Heinrich Pestalozzi, Switzerland. 
Originator of modern pedagogical art, especially in 
regard to elementary instruction. Principles : instruc- 
tion must be based upon sense-perception, must pro- 
ceed step by step from the known to the unknown, 
from the near to the remote, etc. Aim of education 
should be to develop pure humanity upon a Christian 
basis. A wonderful enthusiast and idealist, but im- 
practical to a fault. 

1746-1830. Stephanie von Genlis, the most distin- 
guished lady teacher and pedagogical writer of her time 
in France. 

1753-1832. Andreiv Bell, England. Promoter of 
popular education. Inventor of monitorial teaching 
(employment of pupil teachers). .(See also Lancas- 
ter.) 

1754-1828. Aug. Herm. Niemeyer, Halle, Ger- 
many. Influential educator and pedagogical writer. 
Principle : education should be rational, and develop 
what is human in man. 

1759-1839. Christ. Fr. Guts-Muths, Germany. 
Teacher at Schnepfenthal ; improved methods of teach- 
ing scientific studies ; zealous promoter of gymnastics. 

1760-1831. Gust. Fr. Dinter, Germany. Highly 
influential in improving normal training-schools. Did 
much to lift the common schools of Eastern Prussia 
when school inspector at Konigsberg. Disciple of 
Pestalozzi. 



332 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

1761-1850. Heinrich Stephani, Germany. Re- 
former of the school system of Bavaria according to 
Pestalozzian principles; re-invented the "lost art" of 
teaching to read by sounds instead of by the alphabet 
method. 

1763-1834. Karl David Ilgen, Germany. The 
"prince among rectors;" fertile writer, and great 
authority. 

1766-1837. Fr. H. Christ. Schivarz, Germany. 
Professor in Heidelberg ; noted teacher ; promoter of 
Pestalozzi's and Kant's ideas ; author of a much- 
quoted " Manual for Education and Instruction." 

1766-1841. Joh. Baptist Graser, Germany. School 
inspector at Bayreuth, Bavaria. Aim of education 
should not be a development of what is human in man, 
but of the ability to fulfil divine destiny. 

1766-1848. Fr. Immanuel Niethammer, Germany. 
Chief school inspector at Munich ; represented the idea 
of humanism as opposed to the idea of utility urged by 
the philanthropists. 

1768-1826. Johann Falk, Germany, Dantzig. 
Founder of the first German boys' reform school at 
Weimar and similar institutions. 

1768-1854. Christ, von Schmid, Germany, Augs- 
burg. Distinguished author of juvenile reading 
matter. 

1769-1831. James Hamilton, England. Inventor 
and advocate of the so-called analytic method in lan- 
guage instruction. 

1770-1840. Jean Jacotot, France, Paris. Inventor 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 333 

of a method known as Jacotot's method, which aims 
at the greatest possible self-activity on the part of the 
pupil, and exercises the memory by endless repetition. 
Principle : " All is in all." Starting with a fable, he 
combined every kind of instruction with language, and 
thus concentrated all his efforts upon a common centre. 

1771-1844. Phil. Emanuel von Fellenberg, Switz- 
erland. Founder of the first industrial school. His 
institution at Hofwyl gained great renown. 

1771-1858. Robert Owen, Scotland. The socialist. 
Founded, 1816, at New Lanark in Scotland, the first 
infant school. 

1773-1838. Bernhard von Denzel, Germany. Noted 
for his laudable efforts in behalf of the school systems 
of Nassau and Wiirtemberg. 

1776-1839. Hemic Ling, Sweden, Lund. Founder 
of the so-called Swedish system of gymnastics. 

1776-1841. Joh. Fr. Herbart, Germany. His 
philosophical and psychological writings have exer- 
cised a great and beneficial influence upon pedagogy. 
Applied his ideas practically as principal of a teacher's 
training-school. 

1777-1838. Jos. Lancaster, England, London. 
Founder of the so-called Lancaster schools, in which 
Bell's suggestion to have the younger pupils taught by 
older ones, was carried out. This "monitorial teach- 
ing" is commonly called Bell-Lancaster method. 

1778-1852. Fr. Ludwig Jahn, Germany. Father 
of g3 T mnastics in Germany. 

1779-1868. Henry Brougham, England. Noted 



334 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

promoter of education among the lower strata of 
society. 

1780-1852. Karl Christ. Gottl. Zerrener, Germarry, 
Magdeburg. Reformer of public-school s} T stem in 
Prussia, and authority on methods. Author of " Book 
of Methods." 

178.2-1852. Fr. Wm. Aug. Froebel, Germany. 
The greatest modern reformer of education. Noted 
author: "Education of Man," "Pedagogy of m the 
Kindergarten," and other works. Best known as 
the founder of kindergarten. 

1787-1864. Wilhelm Harnisch, rector of a teach- 
ers' seminary, Weissenfels, Germany. Noted author- 
ity on methods, and author of text-books used quite 
extensively. 

1790-1866. Fr. Adolf Diesteriveg, Moers in Rhen- 
ish Prussia, later in Berlin. Rector of teachers' 
seminary. Most decisive promoter of rational teach- 
ing ; author of "Teachers' Guide," which, repeatedly 
revised, is to this day the standard work on practical 
pedagogy in Germany. He was in Germany what 
Horace Mann was in America : the sharpest critic, the 
most fertile author, and the palladine of the profes- 
sion. In the press, on the rostrum, in Parliament, he 
always fought the battle of the teachers against con- 
servatism, priestly arrogance, and the stupidity of the 
masses. If the four greatest pedagogues are to be 
mentioned, they must be Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, 
and Diesterweg. 

1791-1864. Christ. Qottlob Scholz, Germany. 



HISTOBT OF EDUCATION. 335 

Principal of a normal school for female teachers at 
Breslau. 

1795-1842. Thomas Arnold, England. Rector at 
Rugby ; reformer of secondary instruction ; one of the 
greatest educators of England. 

1798-1862. Joh. Karl Christ. Vogel, Germany. 
Distinguished rector of the " Real-school" at Leipzig. 

1798-1854. Fr. Eduard Beneke, Germany. Noted 
psychologist at Berlin. Very influential by applying 
psychological laws in instruction. 

1799-1868. Johann Gottl. Dressier, Germany. 
Rector of a normal school at Bautzen ; very active in 
spreading Beneke's ideas. 

1800^1879. Heinrich Wichern, Germany. Founder 
of the reformatory school "zwm Baulien Hause" at 
Hamburg. 

1801-1870. Th. Ignatius Scherr, Switzerland. 
Distinguished promoter of popular education in 
►Switzerland. 

1802-1868. Heinrich Graefe, Germany. Rector 
of Real-school at Bremen. Emphasized the training of 
emotions, in contradistinction to the one-sided intel- 
lectual training. 

1803-1873. Thomas Guthrie, England. Founder 
of the so-called " Rag-school " for depraved youth. 

1804-1875. Karl Adolf Schmid, Germany, Stutt- 
gart. Editor of the greatest cyclopaedia of education 
and instruction, a wonderful work, and the best source 
of information for the history of education. 

1804-1873. August Lueben, Germany. Pupil of 



336 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Harnisch ; rector of normal school at Bremen, re- 
former of methods in teaching natural history and 
sciences, author of a number of well-reputed school- 
books, and editor of an educational journal, "The 
Practical Schoolmaster." 

1810-1858. Karl Mager, Germany. Promoter of 
modern "Citizen-schools." 

1811-1867. Friedrich Luebker, German}-. Rector 
in Schleswig. Author of an excellent lexicon of 
classical antiquity. 

181 6-. Ferdinand Schmidt, Germany. Author of 
juvenile literature. 

181 7-. Tuisko Ziller, Germany. University of 
Leipzig. Represented Herbart's principles ; founded 
a normal school for university students, in which he 
applied Herbart's S3'stem of concentric instruction. 
Same was done in Stoy's seminary at Jena. 

1819-1864. Karl Schmidt, Germany, Gotha. 
Author of best history of education ; advocated an- 
thropological instruction. 

1829-. Friedrich Dittes, Austria. Rector of nor- 
mal school at Vienna. Best authority on modern 
methods of teaching ; well-reputed editor of educa- 
tional journals ; and author of " School of Peda- 
gogy," 4 vols. 

The writer has purposely omitted all reference to 
American educators, since he considers himself incom- 
petent to make a proper selection from the long list 
of distinguished educators who have so nobly worked 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 337 

to promote American popular education to its present 
high standard of excellence. But he hopes sincerely 
that some well-reputed, judicious writer may find it a 
labor of love to furnish the American teaching pro- 
fession with such a list. 



CHAPTER X. 

HISTORY. 



CHAPTER X. 

HISTORY. 

WHY, WHEN, AND HOW TO TEACH HISTORY; 
OR, A WANT, AND HOW TO MEET IT. 

It is a trite, yet eminently wise, remark, " The boy 
is the father of the man." The man is to be, cer- 
tainly in this country, the citizen of a Republic. It 
seems, therefore, very desirable that the boy, and for 
that matter the girl also, should acquire something of 
that which is indispensable in the future citizen. The 
citizen of a republic is distinguished from the subject 
of a monarch by a greater number of rights ; but every 
additional right is, according to k 'the eternal fitness 
of things," balanced by an additional civil or moral 
duty. The citizen of the Republic is, therefore, under 
greater obligations than the subject of a monarch. 

I do not care to encumber this essay with an enu- 
meration of these rights and duties. I will mention 
only one, which, though self-evident as it may be, is 
not generally understood. Self-government demands 
greater exertion on the part of the individual in all 
domains of human activity ; but, above all, it demands 
a higher degree of intellectual and moral culture, both 
for the enjoyment of greater rights and the fulfilment 
of higher duties, than is required of persons in a 

341 



342 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE DAY. 

country with little or no self-government. This rea- 
soning appears to me so evident, that I hesitate to 
give it utterance. 

But let me ask, Is it generally acknowledged to be 
correct? Do educational officials, leaders of educa- 
tional affairs, act accordingly? It appears not. With 
much complacency and satisfaction it is said, — and 
not only in Fourth-of-July orations, — "Every citizen 
of this glorious country is a sovereign." This savors 
much of the proverbial " Civis Romanum sum," and 
will inevitably lead to the same result ; that is, degen- 
eration of the individual and state. 

It is the common belief in all strata of society, that 
the mere privilege of being a citizen — the accident of 
birth — is sufficient for all practical purposes. An 
extensive preparation does not seem to be required 
or needed. Indeed, the fact that a colored — or, for 
that matter, a pale-faced — illiterate voter, whose want 
of culture stamps him an " encyclopaedian ignora- 
mus," has greater rights and fewer duties than the 
most accomplished and cultured lady, is evidently the 
upshot of the general belief referred to. We trust 
too much to the "benign influence of our free insti- 
tutions." 

We sin grievously, when we hasten to acquaint our 
children with the rights of citizenship, but remain 
silent upon their attendant duties. Under such cir- 
cumstances the rights of an ignorant, vicious person, 
or of a weak, reed-like character, are rights no longer: 
they are privileges (private rights). 



HISTORY. 343 

But not only in intellectual culture should the citizen 
of a republic excel. More necessary than that, is 
moral or ethical culture. Nowhere is the noble virtue 
obedience a more necessary requisite of citizenship 
than in a republic, where no arbitrary power enforces 
obedience, but where the law is made and executed 
by the people themselves ; where the government is 
"of the people, by the people, and for the people." 
Without strict obedience of its citizens, the republic 
is a contradiction in itself. 

Obedience is, to a great extent, dependent upon the 
will-power, and that can only be trained in early youth. 
Every one who has had experience in training chil- 
dren knows this ; but when we come to ask, How is 
the will-power best to be trained ? the most contradic- 
tory answers will be heard. I do not care to stoop so 
low as to refute the rod-argument or the taffy-argu- 
ment. Let me say at once, that moral will-power must 
derive its nourishment from the fountain of emotion. 

The moral will-power can be steeled in no more 
rational and no more appropriate way, than by meaus 
of good instruction in history. In history lie stored 
up the grand examples and experiences of the past. 
Youth is willing, nay, eager to learn them, if they are 
brought to them, not as mould and ashes, but as living 
creatures and lifelike actions. And with the aid of 
history alone can be proven the grand truth, that the 
system of the world is not dependent upon mere sense- 
less play of mechanical forces, in which accidents or 
cunning or brutal force play the important roles, but 



344 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

upon an immortal law of justice and truth ; and that 
he is the mightiest and happiest who succeeds in 
keeping his own life in constant harmony with these 
fundamental laws of the entire system of the world. 

" Man meets, both in the ethical and physical world, 
a number of definite laws and regulations. If he does 
not heed them, he injures himself, he inevitably incurs 
punishment; for these laws (as we may term them) 
are so wonderfully constituted and adjusted, that they 
execute themselves. Punishment for this violation 
need not be inflicted laboriously and arbitrarily by 
external agencies, but follows with necessity as an 
inevitable sequence. Like rocks in the sea, amid the 
roaring waves of human existence, these eternal ethical 
laws stand unshaken ; and however often the billows 
attempt to wash them away, surging up to them, and 
momentarily covering them, the billows always recede 
discouraged, and the rocks appear anew, brighter, and, 
to all outward appearances, more firmly set than ever." 

These words of a noted Swiss writer (Bitzius, jun.) 
seem to indicate clearly what must be the true object 
of instruction in history. The true object of all edu- 
cation, in fact, seems to consist in making the human 
being see clearly the existence of this ethical order of 
the world, which is subject to unchangeable laws, and 
can be observed in great things as well as in trifles. 
History will be the most effectual means for that 
purpose. Education must also bring to a clear con- 
ception the greater value of ideal gifts, and their 
preferableness to material ones in all conditions of 



HISTORY. 345 

life. From this will, by the aid of life's experience, 
result that which is crystallized in the one word " char- 
acter." Again, history is the most effectual means to 
that end. 

The rising generation must get historical knowledge, 
if not for these reasons, then certainly for the purpose 
of preserving the Republic, and perpetuating its free 
institutions. The future can be read between the 
lines of the records of the past. History unfolds 
before our eyes a picture of what past generations 
thought, aspired, and accomplished. History shows us 
our own errors ; and these are all the more readily 
seen, since it offers us a standard of measurement in 
the errors of other nations. 

History affords, without artificial preparation, an in- 
sight into human affairs, characters, aspirations, and 
destinies, particularly in their combinations, as they 
appear in the affairs of the state. It gives knowledge 
of man, creates ethical judgment, promotes political 
education. A study of history fits our children for a 
place in the world better than any " bread-and-butter 
study " will. 

History has a just claim to a place in the curriculum 
of the common school in this countiy, where partici- 
pation in public life, and the business of state, is not 
confined to officers of the state, but where every citi- 
zen, by means of his one modest vote, decides the 
destiny of his country. 

History is a relative term. Many give it no wider 
meaning than a narration of events that happened in 



346 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

this countiy since 1776. This is to be regretted. It 
is my humble opinion, that the pupils should learn 
more history than that of the United States, although 
that much is more than millions of them ever learn. 
Mirroring one's self in one's own accomplishments, 
and measuring one's self by one's own deeds, will 
cause that fatal kind of insanity, called hallucination 
of grandeur, specimens of which can be noticed in all 
strata of societ}- ; it is even found in entire nations, 
notably in the French. People who learn no other 
history than that of their own country lose the best 
and most significant part of history. They have no 
standard of measurement, and settle back into a feel- 
ing of complacency and satisfaction which is the arch 
foe of progress. 

The boy who claimed that Washington was the first 
man, and upon being reminded. of Adam, said, "Oh, 
well, if you count foreigners in," — that boy is not an 
imaginary creation. We may find him in all classes 
of society, and in every part of the Union, but most 
frequently in New England. 

The poet was right who said, " In small circles the 
mind remains small." The wider the horizon of ob- 
servation and thought, the greater the intelligence. 
Notice the similarity between physiology and psychol- 
ogy. Hunters who search the distance have a far 
vision : bookworms are near-sighted. Church-tower 
patriotism is on the increase in this country. 

New York's " finest police in the world," Kala- 
mazoo's "finest schoolhouse in the world," and like 



HISTORY. 347 

expressions, are all grown on the same soil, — over- 
estimation of self, want of a standard of measurement. 
Let the future citizen of the Republic study the history 
of Greece, Rome, France, Germany, and England ; let 
him compare these countries with his own. He will 
appreciate his own nation's noble deeds the better, and 
judge its evil tendencies the more justly, the more he 
learns of the achievements and errors of other nations. 

How little this self-evident truth is understood by 
school-men, may be seen from the fact, that of late the 
study of history is recommended to be replaced by 
trigonometry, " because the latter has a market value." 
It can be seen also from school statistics. In them is 
found documentaiy evidence to the startling fact, that 
general history is not taught, except to some fortunate 
few. 

The Commissioner of Common Schools of Ohio 
states that the number of pupils enrolled in the com- 
mon schools of the State in 1884 was 762,755 ; that of 
these not ten per cent studied United-States histoiy, 
namely 69,985. And the number of those who studied 
general history was so insignificant, that he saved the 
State some humiliation by not mentioning the paltry 
few hundred who attempted to get a glimpse at ancient 
Greece and Rome. 

Educational considerations, then, and the future of 
this Republic, our country, demand that the young 
generation be made acquainted witli history. The 
nature of the study itself xlemands that history be 
taken up at an early age, say at twelve years, or even 



348 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

earlier. In higher seats of learning little can be reme- 
died, if the student does not bring with him that com- 
prehension of national history and political institutions 
which alone will make the further study of history 
profitable. The study of geography, it is said, must 
be based upon a solid foundation of sense-perception. 
This maxim holds good in the study of history : a 
comprehension of historical actions and their motives 
cannot be gained, unless it be based upon a lucid 
understanding of institutions and events of the day. 
The maxim, " From the near to the remote," is appli- 
cable in the teaching of history, as well as in other 
branches of study. 

But there is another reason why the study of history 
should begin early, and be guided well. It is this : 
the student comes to the high school or college with 
the firmly laid substructure of his entire being. He 
comes bent upon either ideal or material purposes. 
His aspirations have a certain direction. His habits 
are formed. His inclination for doing work, or for 
shirking it, is developed. In numerous cases he has 
accustomed himself to a given method of acquiring 
knowledge, which cannot be changed. He is even en- 
dowed with predilections which no professor of history 
would find possible to counteract. To leave, there- 
fore, the most important branch of study for the up- 
building of character to those few fortunate ones who 
enter secondary schools, is, to term it mildly, very 
unwise. 

It is scarcely necessary to reiterate, that but few 



HISTORY. 349 

ever complete the course of study iu secondaiy schools, 
and that the number of boys who enter secondary com- 
mon schools is insignificant when compared with that 
of the girls. It is a standing reproach to our sj'stem 
of schools, when we hear that in monarchical Germany 
general history is taught below the high school. 

Now, hoio history should be taught, ariVl by ivhom, are 
by no means indifferent questions. The pupil must, 
first of all, feel some of that fire of enthusiasm, of that 
warmth of conviction and ideality which glows in the 
breast of the teacher. Then he will awaken, then he 
will begin to work for himself, with himself, and upon 
himself. 

"Without this awakening, without this self-activity, 
all work in schools is in vain, mechanical, and unprofit- 
able. Deep interest in the subject, and faith in the per- 
son of the teacher, — yes, faith pure and simple, — are 
the most powerful levers in all school- work, but in no 
other study are they more directly felt than in histoiy. 
"With this I have mentioned the most important factor, 
— the teacher. 

History is by no means something which any ama- 
teur may read up to-day, and teach to-morrow. It is 
a conception formed of many perceptions ; it is, aphor- 
istically speaking, an inner experience which must have 
become the teacher's own, and of which he can speak 
as readily and vividly as of an experience of e very-day 
life. 

A true teacher of history can speak of the Punic 
wars with as much authority and decision as he can 



350 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

relate events which happened to himself only yes- 
terday. 

If he can do that, he will teach history usefully, 
with reference to the present time, and not too usefully 
in the sense in which it becomes unhistorical ; that is 
to say, not so that the comprehension of the spirit of 
times and melius lost, and all is saturated with cant, 
and colored with predilections of the teacher. It is 
a grand thing to be a teacher of history ! 

In no country is history taught less than in America, 
and in no country are more laws made and broken 
than here. The former is the cause ; the latter, the 
effect. 

Nowhere are theory and method wanting nowadays, 
especially not in the affairs of the state. The machin- 
ery of the state works more lively than at the time of 
the Declaration of Independence, though that period 
was exceedingly rich in action. The political documents 
of that glorious period of American history, from 1775 
to 1789, fill no more space than do the proceedings of 
one uneventful session of Congress nowadays. But 
the papers written by the founders of the Union all 
bear the unmistakable stamp of greatness, and^how 
indelible traces of the life and actions of a greater race 
than ours, — greater in philosophic insight, greater in 
purity of motives, greater in deeds and aspirations. 
To rear a generation like the one that laid the firm 
foundation of this remarkable structure, the United 
States of America, must be our object, or we could not 
be worthy to live under its protection. 



HISTORY. 351 

Dr. Hilty of Bern says, in a most excellent essay 
on instruction in history, tl Above all, it seems to me, 
history should be seen, and not merely memorized. It 
should not consist in mere names and dates, nor in 
bombastic glittering generalities, nor yet in dry synop- 
tical enumeration of events. That has been our fate 
under the hands of an amateur in history-teaching. 
He gave us his home-made synopsis, and required of 
us to learn by heart from a text-book of general 
history, which was, like all text-books of history, 
superficial to a fault." 

It must be the object of the teacher of history to 
make the matter of instruction objective, so that it may 
become nourishment for the imagination of the pupil. 
The teacher should make use of all possible auxiliaries, 
such as geographical maps, artistic representations of 
things and events. He should consult and make fre- 
quent use of standard works on special history, and 
induce his pupils to refer to them. But let him shun 
the " terrible temptations " of overloading the memory 
of his pupils with indigestible dates and names, which 
will soon be forgotten, and only have the fatal effect 
of weakening the memory. Pupils who have merely 
memorized history will not be able to recall historical 
events and personages with accuracy : they will inva- 
riably " kill the wrong man, at the wrong time, in the 
wrong place, and for the wrong reason." 

The greater number of educated persons can, 
shortly after leaving school, recall but very few of 
the things they learned by no other agency than the 



352 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

printed page and the memory. And as to dates, I 
dare say, none remain inalienable property of the 
learner, which he can at any time command or turn 
to account. How few pupils obtain a tolerably correct 
idea of the Greek and Roman world, or of German, 
French, and English life during the Middle Ages ! It 
is a lamentable fact, that no period of history is ever 
presented in its totality in schools, so as to afford a 
bird's-eye view. If the reader be incredulous, let. him, 
in the company of friends and educated persons, pro- 
pose such questions as these : — 

What was the general state of affairs" in Europe dur- 
ing the fifteenth century ? Who was Pope then ? Who 
were the great potentates then? What were the gen- 
eral boundaries of France, Italy, and Germany? What 
remarkable events happened during that time? In 
what state or condition was law, art, education, reli- 
gion, or industry and commerce? 

Or take any other century. 

The reader will soon find how vague are the ideas 
upon historical facts among his friends, and how little 
the faculty of transferring one's thoughts back into 
remote periods of history is developed. How can it 
be, when the pupils in school are fed with detached 
.facts and names which appear to them in no other con- 
nection than that they follow each other chronologi- 
cally? The pupils are not made to see the causal nexus 
between the histories of different nations. Historical 
conceptions which are vividly imprinted upon the 
memory, and influence the mind and character of the 



U I STORY. 358 

young, are never the result of mere dates and names, 
or of synoptical presentation. There is a world of 
difference between the synopsis of a good novel, and 
the novel itself. 

History ivill ever remain a composition, — the work 
of art of a master. It is never a lifeless photograph 
that can be handed around. No one can grasp or 
represent faithfully the events of even a single year, 
with all its simultaneous facts and events, just as they 
occurred. He will be obliged to combine and group 
them, and thus create a fancy picture which bears the 
true features only in its general character. 

The historian and the teacher of history are, or 
ought to be, artists in the true sense of the word. But 
the talent to create clear conceptions and vivid inner 
representations of historical events, and to suggest or 
cause them in the imagination of others, is almost as 
rare as creative geniuses are in the arts of poetry, paint- 
ing, and sculpture. Not even a comprehension of the 
desirability of such models in historical presentation 
is found frequently. And yet we have in literature 
admirable masterpieces of historical writing which 
can be recommended heartily to teachers and pupils. 
They create indelible impressions upon the imagina- 
tion. 

Think of Thierry's " History of the Merovingians," 
Carlyle's "Letters and Speeches of Cromwell," Car- 
lyle's "French Revolution," Prescott's "Conquest 
of Peru," and the wonderfully objective description of 
the beginning of Norman rule in England as found 



354 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

in the history of the Abbe} 7 of St. Edmundsbury (in 
" Past and Present ") . 

He who reads these books will get a positive picture, 
a picture in bold relief, of the respective times, and of 
the persons acting in them. Something of their spirit 
will touch him ; and their history is henceforth en- 
graved upon the tablet of his memory, as is an actual 
experience. Such books have a soul, something that 
cannot be found in a text-book of history. The latter 
is a graveyard. Only masters can produce pieces of 
art ; but since good books like those mentioned above, 
and many others, are easily accessible, they should be 
made auxiliaries to the lessons in school and to the 
studies at home. 

In connection with this, it may be urged, let the 
pupils read and study important historical documents. 
They have a peculiar convincing power, and can in no 
way be substituted by word of mouth, and certainly 
not by a synopsis. 

No one who ever read the (Swiss) Sempach Letter, 
or the (Augsburg) Confession of Faith, or the Decla- 
ration of Independence, or the (French) Declaration 
of Human Rights, or Washington's Farewell Address, 
or Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, or King 
Frederick Wilhelm's Appeal to his People in 1812, and 
imbibed some of the spirit that dictated these papers, 
will ever forget them, or their leading ideas, and the 
events connected with them. The very fact that such 
words have been used, that such things have been said, 
that men have thus made history, will indelibly imprint 



HISTORY. 355 

itself upon the memory. How man}' educated persons 
are able to give the leading ideas of these immortal 
documents? Test your friends by the fireside, dear 
reader, and oh the display of ignorance you will 
notice ! 

But I must come to a close. Dr. Hilty say's, in 
substance, "I make this 'heretic' statement, that our 
text-books in history are much too methodically ar- 
ranged. They permit free elbow-room to neither 
teacher nor pupils ; I mean, free scope for self- think- 
ing and self -activity. They make all original develop- 
ment next to impossible. The better the text-book, 
the w r eaker the teacher." The reader ma} T take this 
cum grano salts, and try to digest it. 

Summary. — My object has been to show, (1) that 
knowledge of history is a requisite of good citizenship ; 
(2) that good instruction in history is conducive to the 
upbuilding of character ; (3) that history should there- 
fore be taught in the common schools ; (4) that instruc- 
tion in history should begin earlier than is commonly 
done ; (5) that it should not be confined to history of 
our own country, because that would eugender megalo- 
mania ; (6) that the teacher of history must be a true 
teacher, not a text-book rider; (7) that instruction in 
history should be assisted by reference to noteworthy 
books on special history, and distinguished historical 
documents. 



356 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

CAUSE AND EFFECT IN HISTORY. 
(after a treatise of professor honigsheim.) 

Not only in the history of our earth's formation, 
but in the history of man, of nations as well, has the 
"cataclysm-theory" ceased to be tenable. Modern 
physical science no longer accepts the statement that 
worlds and organisms are completely destroyed at cer- 
tain crises, and continents and oceans arranged in a 
different order to form an entirely new creation. And, 
like geology, scientific history — that is, historical 
investigation — searches among all transmitted facts 
for cause and effect. Only contemporaries are sur- 
prised. 

By succeeding generations cause and effect are seen 
to be the scheme planned long in advance, the opera- 
tion of prepared expedients and mechanical forces. 
Such a view behind the scenes of the world's theatre 
is often painful, and yet helpful, to the mind. For 
wounds inflicted by truth do not cause loss in vital 
energy, but great gain. Indeed, it is only as we assure 
ourselves of the true nature of the forces at wOrk in 
universal history, that we can reconcile o'urselves with 
the experience, that the result often falls far behind 
justifiable expectations ; that the advantage of one 
individual or nation is to the detriment of another ; that 
without sacrifice no progress is possible. 

The causes of the downfall of the Roman Republic 
form the subject of this discourse. In this connection, 
the thought occurred to me, to point out, at especially 



HISTOBY. 357 

notable periods in this historical sketch, the resem- 
blances existing in our government of to-day, and to 
draw parallels ; but this seemed scarcely appropriate 
for an assembly like the present. He must be stricken 
with blindness who could not discern the likeness 
between the dangers affecting the government in Rome 
and in America. Whoever will have the goodness to 
follow me attentively will be tempted, at several prom- 
inent points, to exchange the names of American 
statesmen for Roman ones ; so similar, so identical, 
are the conditions in the Union with those of Rome 
two thousand years ago. 

Some one may wish to suggest, that, among the 
nations mentioned in history, there may be at least 
one better suited than the Roman to the considera- 
tion given in this place. The history of the Roman 
people, I admit, is by no means the one which most 
charms the human mind. In this respect it is far sur- 
passed by the Greek, particularly the Attic. I have, 
however, chosen the Roman, because it is in several 
points similar to the history of the United States, 
though in others, to be sure, as unlike as possible. 
Furthermore, it is of peculiar value to us as citizens 
of the United States, since no other historical epoch 
is so well fitted to serve as a storehouse of fruitful 
teaching for the circumstances by which we are sur- 
rounded. Yet that alone is not the cuuse of my select- 
ing the Roman history. It is, that; of all histories, 
this one is the most instructive for knowledge of the 
laws in accordance with which states rise, flourish, and 



358 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

decline. In harmony with the serious, prudent charac- 
ter of its people, it presents more clearly than does 
any other a gradual, progressive, self -unfolding develop- 
ment of all governmental relations. Not easily could 
a state be found in which both the detail of outward 
changes and the unfolding of the inner national life 
have proceeded so regularly. Outwardly and inwardly, 
in the prosperity and in the decay of the nation, a 
sudden change is scarcely visible. 

This peculiarity is especially noticeable in the exter- 
nal history. From what slender, almost imperceptible 
beginnings, rose the Roman power ! The starting-point 
of that mighty empire was a city in a district which 
would have offered scarcely space enough for our little 
city. This gradual, uninterrupted growth was by no 
means the sequence of a sudden illumination of politi- 
cal good fortune ; but nothing more and nothing less 
than discriminating judgment, unusual persistence, and 
a peculiar aptitude for war, were the causes that led the 
city to subdue, first the surrounding regions, then all 
Italy, and that the Roman power finally reached out 
farther with resistless certainty, until the boundaries 
of the empire included nearly all of the then known 
world. The largest, fairest portions of the earth's 
surface, as then explored, were either Roman prov- 
inces or tributary states. 

And just as gradually did the life of the tree decline, 
so that its fall at last could occur almost without noise. 

But still more than the external, do the internal rela- 
tions afford the sight of a slow, one might say thought- 



HISTORY. 359 

ful, advance. Nowhere else may be traced so clearly 
the progress of a national growth in Nature's own 
unhurried manner. Until the year 509 B.C., — that 
is, for nearly two hundred and fifty } T ears, — Rome 
was a monarchy. It is true, by the unanimous report 
of antiquity, this early monarchy was overthrown 
suddenly and with violence ; but on closer inspection 
we see that it no longer had foundation in popular 
approval. The republican form of government was 
prepared long before, as plainly told by early writ- 
ers, Livy in particular. Then followed the conflict of 
ranks and classes. Fully two hundred years elapsed 
from the beginning of the contest, before the common 
people, wresting one immunity after another from the 
aristocracy, attained to the full possession of political 
rights ; and the organization of the government thereby 
reached its highest consummation. 

In precisely similar manner as the progress, is the 
ruin of the republican constitution finally brought 
about, without shock or violent act. No, the splendid 
Roman Republic, after it has conquered the globe, 
is thorough!} 7 unsettled in a long, quiet struggle, by 
various deadly conditions, and the way for its fall 
thereby so imperceptibly prepared, that the appearance 
in conclusion of the "one-man-power" of Caesarism 
is made to appear inevitable necessity. Even the 
thought of a return to the old republican form can 
no more arise. 

Since thus, in the course of Rome's history, violent 
transitions occur very seldom, but instead, the germs 



360 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

of new forms may be traced in undisturbed growth 
through long periods, the study of this history offers 
opportunity for comparison as does that of no other 
people. But in all Roman history no other period 
offers so much instruction as the one which witnessed 
the downfall of its republican government. 

When a free state, whose citizens have conquered 
the world by their wonderful strength, adapts itself 
with such composure to a monarchy, that the latter 
is never again seriously opposed, the constitutional 
change must indeed be accounted for by causes of the 
most unanswerable character. The merely incidental 
conquest by a despot could in no way explain it. 
Striking evidence is found, how little a monarchy thus 
established may count upon continuance among the 
numberless examples of Greek despots who were soon 
compelled to yield again to the popular republican 
pressure. In Rome, on the contrary, liberty is by no 
means restored through Caesar's assassination ; but a 
fresh struggle for supremacy begins, which does not 
cease until Octavianus succeeds in establishing his 
authority. And from that time on, whatever opposi- 
tion occurs is directed against the person of the mon- 
arch, not against the fact of monarchy ; which is 
conclusive proof that royal power must have had deep- 
reaching roots in the altered character and correspond- 
ing condition of the people. If we now direct our 
attention towards those conflicts of factions, preceding 
and directly assisting the fall of the Republic, and 
compare them, according to their origin and aim, with 



HISTORY. 361 

the earlier ones between Patricians and Plebeians, we 
shall find, first of all, a very remarkable change in the 
national character, than which none other could be 
more favorable to the subversion of free government. 
For instance, while the earlier strifes between the 
nobility and the common people were almost always 
waged by the populace in behalf of their own well- 
understood interest, we now see the people set into 
commotion, even if under the pretence of their advan- 
tage, merely for the selfish purposes of their leaders. 
Thus Caesar ranged himself, from the beginning of his 
career, on the side of the popular party, and sought to 
commend himself to it by his agrarian laws and other 
favors. But who does not see, from the whole history 
of the ambitious man, that by these means he wished 
to make the people instrumental to his personal aims ; 
and that they were merely the price for which the 
people helped along Caesar's ambitious schemes? 

I must call your attention to another phase of the 
subject, from which it likewise follows that the people 
in general had become a spiritless tool in the hands of 
their leaders, and that their vital interests were of no 
consequence to the weal or woe of the state. AVe 
notice, for instance, that during the civil wars, many 
a time, one battle decides the contest ; and we can 
draw the conclusion that every thing depended on the 
person of the leader, whom they renounced at once 
when the prospect of reward had vanished from his 
side. 

But if a people which calls itself republican permits 



362 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

itself to be thus maltreated, it must fare ill with 
its love of liberty. The possibility is at least sug- 
gested, that it may submit to the yoke of despotism 
without resistance. Both things, however, — the in- 
difference of the masses to constitutional liberty, as 
well as the strife of party chiefs for unlimited exten- 
sion of power, could have arisen only from deep moral 
degradation. The perversion of morality, which in- 
creased in equal measure with external power, is the 
fundamental evil of that time ; yes, it is a prominent 
cause of the overthrow of the republican govern- 
ment, though by no means the only one, as I mean 
to show farther on. 

In all historical writings, ancient and modern, men- 
tion is chiefly made of the moral depravity among the 
influential and powerful classes, when speaking of 
the deterioration of the Roman people. To me, on 
the contrary, it seems as if the moral sense of the 
lower classes is by far the more important and the 
more significant element for the dismemberment of 
the government. 

But if we question how it comes that the plebs 
during the last century of the free state became so 
contemptible a class, there is presented for considera- 
tion as the peculiar evil of the state, on one side, the 
gradual increase in the vast class without property, 
the pauper element ; on the other side, the vast accu- 
mulation of wealth, and especially of landed property, 
in the hands of the few. Between these extremes the 
middle class stands on poor footing, and even dis- 



HISTORY. 363 

appears .entirely in consequence of impoverishment. 
But on this class depends the strength of every state ; 
the middle class in its turn depends upon agriculture. 
The impoverishment of this class, however, and the 
decay of agriculture, by which the death-blow was 
given to the welfare of the small land-owners, began 
during one of the most brilliant periods in Roman 
history, the Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.). 

It was the most bitter revenge that the finally de- 
feated Hannibal of Carthage could have taken on 
Rome at his departure from Italy, that in consequence 
of his victorious passage through the whole peninsula, 
in the year 201 B.C., he left behind him an Italy 
wasted and reduced beyond example. Already during 
the war had the small land-owners, disregarding their 
ruined possessions, rushed in crowds towards the city 
of Rome ; nor could they be again removed from it, 
not even by force. 

During the wearisome war the burdens of debt 
among the small proprietors, a class alread}' greatly 
enlarged, increased so much that it was scarcely possi- 
ble for them, after the close of the war, to cultivate 
their lands again. 

Some of you know from experience what conse- 
quences follow in the train of war, and likewise how 
difficult it is to overcome these consequences ; and now 
remember that the Second Punic War was waged with 
the greatest severity in their own land for seventeen 
years. This war resulted in a devastation of the open 
country such as occurred in greater degree only in the 



364 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Thirty Years' War during the seventeenth century. In 
addition to this, reflect that what had been so ruth- 
lessly destroyed in Italy in one year, required the labor 
of ten years to be restored. For this reason the poor 
man lost courage, and we all know that the Latin race 
lacked the unconquerable vitality of the Germanic 
race. The ground adapted to cultivation passed more 
and more into the hands of the wealthy few, who 
through bargain, usury, and craft or even violence, 
dispossessed the humble proprietor, and even acquired 
the exclusive use of the incorporated common lands, 
in many cases even secured ownership. Moreover, 
they had their land worked by slaves ; thus land 
ceased to give support to free citizens. 

This decay of the middle class had so extended up 
to the year 137, that Tiberius Gracchus, during a jour- 
ney through Etruria, found slaves at the plough in 
almost every case ; on which account, in an effective 
speech to the people, he used the words, " The so- 
called masters of the world do not possess a clod of 
earth as their own property." 

The city of Rome appeared the most natural place 
of refuge to all the ruined tribes in Italy ; and, of 
course, an excessive increase of the poorer class 
occurred in consequence. But even here no respecta- 
ble occupation could be found except for him who was 
adapted or inclined to the military profession. Ancient 
Rome recognized only two honorable vocations for the 
free-born citizen, — agriculture and war. Trade and 
industrial pursuits had always been foreign to the 



HISTORY. 365 

Romans. They proudly held these to be necessary 
evils, and unworthy occupations for a free man. They 
rather left it to foreigners and serfs to enjoy the rich 
profit which manual labor and mercantile enterprises 
bring in, than that they should have sullied their 
dignity with the stain of vulgar occupations. All 
professional labor, even the decoration of the palaces, 
was performed by slaves, men and women. All the 
conditions mentioned taken together formed the nat- 
ural foundation, on which was formed, more quickly in 
Rome than in the Europe of to-day, a frightfully large 
class of the lower order. This class, as everywhere, 
was driven by the very nature of the case into im- 
morality, and became a tool to be bought with gold, 
and ready for any thing, — a class, too, which did not 
shrink from revolts and revolutions, but, on the con- 
trary, regarded these as welcome opportunities. 

And there was no lack of persons to bribe the hands 
of this all-powerful order for enterprises of such 
character ; for the ancient lofty Roman spirit had also 
disappeared from the vpper ranks of society, and in 
its place luxury and avarice had entered, coupled with 
boundless ambition. These were in a his:h decree the 
characteristic features of the upper classes in those 
days. 

The old proverbial simplicity of a Cincinnatus, 
Curius, and Fabricius, could have continued only so 
long as Rome had retained its simple conditions, 
when its wars were waged only with pastoral people 
whose conquest only extended its might, but did not 



366 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

increase wealth by enormous booty and spoils. A 
crisis must have intervened, when contact began with 
the superfine, wealthy, and luxurious Greeks. The 
subjugation of the Eastern empires entirely destroj^ed 
the last protection of the ancient Roman spirit. 

The poet calls it Nemesis, the Nemesis of universal 
history. Foolish talk ! Nothing is presented in such 
events but the results of given causes. The rushing 
together of two streams does not double, but quad- 
ruples, the force of their waters. Let no one wonder, 
therefore, at the decay of morality in ancient Rome ; 
let him see therein nothing remarkable. It simply but 
plainly proves, that every nation which does not, or 
can not, refrain from intimate contact with other nations, 
stands under the law of universal application ; in other 
words, is weakened by them. It must have happened 
as it did happen ; for with the acquisition of higher 
culture from others the disadvantages of that culture 
must also be accepted. And these disadvantages 
increased in geometrical progression. With the taste 
for greater refinement, for the art-treasures of the 
Greeks, the Grecian idea of living held sway, and 
Grecian luxury and fastidiousness entered into the 
homes of the Roman nobles. The first traces of this 
change in the national character likewise appear in the 
time of the Second Punic War. The robbery of works 
of art became a habit with time. Extortion in the 
enemy's land increased systematically. In order to 
exhibit in its full force this characteristic, which had 
become general with time among the influential 



HISTORY. 367 

Romans, it will suffice to cite, instead of many, one 
conspicuous example, which has attained unenviable 
celebrity through Cicero's orations : I mean Verres, the 
governor of Sicily, who was publicly accused by Cicero 
in his. famous t; Orations against Verres " on account 
of his shameful oppression ; and Cicero so vigorously 
attacked him, that he voluntarily went into exile. 
Cicero does not hesitate, in his accusations, to put into 
the mouths of the inhabitants of Sicily the words, 
" Verres has plundered all the gold and silver and treas- 
ures of the island during his administration." Now, 
whether that be a rhetorical exaggeration, or not, the 
essential fact is not affected. When he reports the 
value of the booty at a thousand million sesterces, he 
seems specially to confirm the publicity of the robbery. 

What more natural than that with the rapacity de- 
scribed, with this influx of the whole world's wealth 
into Rome, the most unbounded dissipation, and to us 
unimaginable extravagance, should go hand in hand? 
In consequence of these things, Rome became a cess- 
pool of vice. The scope of this discourse does not 
permit me to go into a closer description of the refined 
debaucheries. Neither is this the place to picture in 
detail the monstrous extravagance which began to pre- 
vail at banquets and spectacles, in dress and buildings 
and furniture. 

Let the remark suffice, that Sallust, although himself 
living in the midst of the depraved age, and therefore 
very moderate in his judgment, introduces his short 
recital of these evils of the time with the words, 



368 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

"These things would seem in the highest degree in- 
credible to him who had not seen them with his own 
eyes." Indeed, one may, even without possessing a 
special acquaintance with the history of luxury, affirm 
without hesitation that never, in the course of all 
history, had dissipation and excess reached a similar 
height as among the Romans of the higher ranks, for 
the simple reason that at no time could the means 
for these have been provided so profusely. What fool- 
ishly large sums were expended by single citizens of 
Rome for articles of luxury, may be learned from the 
following facts. Cato had tapestries brought from 
Babylon, for the cushions of his banquet-hall, which 
cost him eight hundred thousand sesterces (thirty thou- 
sand dollars). The greatest extravagance, however, 
was reached in furniture made from the cypress-wood 
growing at the foot of the Atlas Mountains. The 
peculiarity of this wood consists in a knot in the root, 
which after preparation exhibits a resemblance to a 
panther-skin or peacock-feathers. One million sester- 
ces (thirty-five thousand dollars) was paid for two 
such tables, owned by Gallus and Cethegus ; and 
Cicero, although he was not rich, paid as much for 
one such table. Our statesmen and senators have (the 
Lord be thanked!) not yet carried things as far as 
that. Crassus is reported to have owned real estate 
in the cit} T of Rome to the amount of one hundred and 
seventy millions of sesterces (twelve million dollars) . 

Reverence for law disappeared ; truth and faith 
were subjects for ridicule ; perjury, a dailj* occurrence. 



HISTORY. 369 

Marriage lost its sanctity, education was given up 
entirely. The youthful Romans of rank grew up amid 
the improprieties, crimes, and outrages which their 
parents — yes, even the state itself — shamelessty com- 
mitted. The excavated walls of Pompeii bear witness 
to acts which seem incredible, and which no author had 
the courage to chronicle. The brushes or colors of 
the artists proved to be vile enough for the occasion. 
How must such examples have taken effect on youthful 
dispositions, especiall}' as the education and training 
of the young was commonly intrusted to slaves of 
Greek descent ! 

Let us once more hear Sallust in regard to the result 
of such training: "The disposition of youth, early 
directed towards evil, could not easily escape an incli- 
nation towards sensual pleasures ; all the more eagerly 
was it bent in every way upon wealth and lavish ex- 
penditure." Now, if the paternal property did not 
suffice for the unlimited expenses, if every thing had 
been squandered or entirely covered with debts, a 
longing glance was turned toward the provinces in 
order to extort from these the means for new prodi- 
gality. But, on the other hand, it was possible to 
obtain these provincial appointments only through 
bribery. 

With the mention of these competitions, I have in- 
dicated the ground upon which the baseness of the 
upper classes and the recklessness of the populace met. 
And nothing is more natural than that these two 
extremes should meet. This reciprocal action greatly 



370 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

precipitated the further ruin and destruction of the 
government. 

From the Third Punic War, and already during its 
continuance, the occupation of official positions de- 
pended no longer upon worth and capability, but upon 
the amount and extent of the bribe, The destitute, 
suffering people regarded bribery as a regular means 
of livelihood. It did not stop with electoral corruption, 
which was done in secret, and often amounted to mil- 
lions of sesterces : no, ambition and party strife on 
the one hand, cowardice and depravity, sometimes 
sheer starvation, on the other, were of such a char- 
acter, that the people made bold to present themselves 
to the brokers who bought not only the votes of the 
populace for elections, but also engaged in advance 
their strong right arms for murder and strife. All too 
often such scenes occurred at elections. Laws proved 
of no avail against the general depravity and the un- 
bounded corruption. There is no more striking proof 
of the hopelessness in the conditions then existing, 
than that Cicero himself openly protected Murena who 
was accused of notorious briberies. That was equiva- 
lent to a legalization of lawlessness. 

But however much the diminution of free sentiment 
among the masses may have made easy and prepared 
the downfall of the republican government, they greatly 
err who would make this moral debasement the sole 
or even the chief cause for the appearance of mon- 
archy as a necessary sequence. That such a conclu- 
sion is too precipitate, may be seen by a reference to 



HISTORY. 371 

republics, ancient and modern, in which the greatest 
depravity is known to have held sway. In Carthage, 
the republican form of government went down only 
with the city ; and it was maintained in Venice for cen- 
turies, almost without any internal disturbance. To 
be sure, the so-called republics were not democratic ; 
but from the preceding statements concerning the con- 
duct of the lower and the upper ranks, it is sufficiently 
plain that also in Rome, after the time of the Gracchi, 
the democratic form had really failed, if not formally. 
Even if the issue of elections or legislation depended 
upon the masses, they were subservient almost entirely 
to the aims of ambitious party chiefs. Moreover, we 
find the positions with which the real power was asso- 
ciated, without exception, in possession of the most 
influential families, the so-called Optimates. 

The demoralization had already gone so far, eighty 
years before our era, that the people proper held only 
the humble offices. The upper official positions were 
passed from hand to hand among the nobles, thus 
strengthening their sway. Nobility of rank and birth 
formed an obstinate phalanx against all those who 
believed they might rely upon their merits. 

This aristocracy might have existed amid the great- 
est degradation of morals, and monarchy could have 
been avoided ; but internal dissensions were not to be 
stifled. Venice, for example, existed for centuries 
under an aristocracy. It is granted that this republic 
was not democratic, but it was nevertheless a republic. 
Had the conditions shaped themselves in Rome as 



372 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

they did later in Venice, the necessity for a monarchy 
would not have appeared. We see from this that the 
great depravity and corruption were not the only causes 
of the downfall of the republican government among 
the Romans. Other causes must have been involved 
to result in its failure, despite its splendid past ; and 
this, indeed, was the case. 

The second effective lever for the overturning of the 
government was the dissimilar composition of the state 
as a whole, which made it impossible under a repub- 
lican constitution to guard against internal collisions 
and disturbances. From the collisions civil wars arose 
as a natural sequence, and these could only end in 
a military despotism. No authority has more clearly 
stated the elements of which the Roman state was com- 
posed, than Guizot. May I be permitted to quote 
him : — 

" Rome, in its origin, was a mere municipality, a corporation. 
In Italy, around Rome, we find nothing but cities, — no coun- 
try places, no villages. The .country was cultivated, but not 
peopled. The proprietors dwelt in cities. If we follow the 
history of Rome, we find that she founded or conquered a host 
of cities. It was with cities she fought, it was with cities she 
treated, into cities she sent colonies. In Gaul and Spain we 
meet with nothing but cities ; the country around is marsh and 
forest. In the monuments left us of ancient Rome, we find 
great roads extending from city to city; but the thousands of 
little by-paths now intersecting every part of the country were 
unknown. Neither do we find traces of the immense number 
of churches, castles, country-seats, and villages, which were 
spread all over the country during the Middle Ages. The only 
bequests of Rome consist of vast monuments impressed with 



HISTORY. 373 

municipal character, destined for a numerous population 
crowded into a single spot. A municipal corporation like 
Kome might be able to conquer the world ; but it was a much 
more difficult task to mould it into one compact body." 

The Roman state, then, had arisen from a munici- 
palhy, for which, according to all historical experience, 
a republican form of government was certainly most 
suitable. In those times, republican methods of con- 
ducting affairs were really adapted only to small coun- 
tries or municipalities ; for means of communication 
were lacking to provide the intercourse necessary to 
such an administration. All that is greatly altered in 
our times, where telegraph and steam power unite the 
most widely separated portions of a composite nation. 
As the Roman state widened by conquest, it suited the 
pride of the conquerors, that the newly added portions 
should unite with the conquering power only in a 
relation of subjection. This is the most consequential 
mistake in the Roman polkry. Pride blinded the vic- 
tors ; and instead of granting equal rights to the con- 
quered districts, they reduced them to serfdom, and 
took away from them for all future time the opportu- 
nity to attain political equality. It is plainly to be 
seen that the condition of such a republic was insecure ; 
for the people of the conquered provinces attempted to 
regain their independence whenever danger threatened 
Rome, the head of the nation. They would have con- 
sidered it an honor to take part with Rome's citizens 
in the destinies of the state, but they would never have 
accepted cheerfully a fate such as became theirs. 



374 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

History offers proofs in abundance of that statement. 
After the disastrous days at Cannae, when Hannibal 
had nearly vanquished Rome, there occurred a general 
revolt of the confederates and dependencies. To be 
sure, the favorable change in the war at that time 
returned every thing to the old state of things. 

But the effort of the Italian races to rise from their 
dependent condition was repeated later and more vigor- 
ously ; only with the difference, that they no longer 
wished to lead a national life separated from Rome, 
but to share with her in the rule of the world. Vainly 
did the aristocrats of Rome seek to evade this demand : 
the dangerous Social War threatened the destruction 
of Rome, and there finally remained no expedient to 
arrest the dissolution of the body politic except the 
granting of civil rights to all Italians. 

The extension of civil equality to all Italians marks 
so important a moment in the vital history of the Re- 
public, that I cannot forbear to dwell upon it a little. 
They intended by this measure to renew and refresh, 
as it were, the debased city inhabitants, by a healthful 
infusion from the rural population ; in other words, to 
restore the middle class. They intended to . convert 
the Roman city into a Roman nation. But they made 
a mistake, or, rather, half did what could be cured only 
by a radical reform. 

In the first place, it may be said with truth, that not 
even the slightest improvement, so hoped for and 
desired, may be noticed in the behavior of the Roman 
populace after the real incorporation of the Italians, 



HISTOBY. 375 

in 81 B.C. : on the contrary, the popular assemblies 
and conventions were still as heretofore a play-ball in 
the hands of ambitious demagogues, greedy for spoils. 
That attempt to fit the form of a municipality to a 
whole country must of necessity have been a failure. 
Just imagine, how could the real middle class, plainly 
the most important element in the new body of citi- 
zens, from whose presence in the assemblies something 
beneficial was to be hoped, — how could this class have 
been able to make frequent journeys to Rome, to the 
neglect of their own affairs, in order to make their 
political rights of value there by exercising them ? 

What immense additions, on the other hand, were re- 
ceived by the two extremes of Rome's population, the 
low-born and the aristocratic ! The prominent and 
wealthiest of the new citizens were soon driven to go 
the same way with the aristocratic party ; that is, 
crowd their way to the head by unworthy means, On 
the other hand, we see needy crowds, averse to labor, 
who now flow directly towards Rome, like refuse into a 
sewer, to obtain through bribery and lavish expense 
the means of a comfortable support, a life of idleness. 
Rome, which had only four hundred aud fifty thousand 
inhabitants in 70 B.C., had four million one hundred 
and sixty-five thousand inhabitants in 29 B.C., an in- 
crease of more than nine hundred per cent. 

Thus the exact opposite was attained of what was 
intended by the new law. It was a new ferment 
thrown into the seething mass of the Roman populace. 
The question involuntarily presents itself : Why did it 



376 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

not occur to the Romans, when civil and electoral 
rights were given the Italians, to introduce the rep- 
resentative system? This would have been the best 
way to ascertain the common will of the nation ; and 
they would have been able to dispense with so many 
legislative and popular assemblies, bringing ruin to 
the city. But this system remained foreign to all 
antiquity, at least as far as representation of all the 
people included in the government was concerned. 
Nor could this scarcely have been otherwise. - 

The great Oriental kingdoms, from time immemo- 
rial, succumbed to despotism, as they even to this day 
languish under it. In the little free states of Greece, 
as for a long time among the Romans, the will of the 
controlling majority of the citizens in regard to impor- 
tant affairs could be learned all too easily by personal 
votes or elections, so that the need of a representative 
system could not have made itself felt. It was not 
thought of later, when this need did appear, for the 
reason that it was the custom to consider participa- 
tion in legislation and state-management as a personal 
right, inseparable from the dignity of a free citizen. 
It certainly presents a limitation to the nature of a 
genuine democracy, which is only to be found where 
every individual citizen shares, or may share, in the 
expression of the common will. (This thoroughly 
democratic method has lately, in certain places, been 
converted into a limited representative system in which 
new bills, legal decisions, and even appointments, are 
subjected to a popular vote, as is done in Switzerland.) 



UISTORY. 377 

Nor must it be forgotten that the necessity of the 
representative system for Greeks and Romans appeared 
just at a time when what was best in their political 
constitution had outlived its day ; the political sense 
had almost perished among the people. 

But even if the leading heads in Rome could have 
made the resolution to introduce popular representa- 
tion, Italy could not have congratulated itself as a 
republic on a stability needful for its plans and endur- 
ing peace, without other comprehensive changes. It 
was not only too large (too large for the scanty means 
of communication of that time) , but it was composed 
of too diverse elements, which was the special reason 
that the form of a united republic under the direction 
of a central power would have been more suitable. 

A remedy could have been found for the Roman 
colossus, against the increased danger of factions in its 
interior ; namely, the federal republic. This kind of 
free states, in which the central power is restricted to 
the management of such affairs as must concern the 
whole and rise from the whole, while freest elbow- 
room is left to each state for the management of its 
own affairs, was alone able to encounter the dangers 
indicated with which greater republics must, universally 
contend. Not only have municipal confederations, like 
the iEolian, the Ionian, the Doric, of ancient times, or 
the Hanseatic League of the Middle Ages, been able to 
maintain in this way the republican form of govern- 
ment, and attain great prosperity ; but there are exam- 
ples also in the present time of important confedera- 



378 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

tions, — our American Union of States, the numerous 
republics in South America, nay, one even in the heart 
of Europe, Switzerland, — which prove the successful 
adaptation of this form of government. 

The prominent statesmen of Rome saw the need of 
this change, but the possibility of its execution was 
not obvious. For, while the above-named republics of 
modern times have grown up naturally by the union 
of separate states which might have existed near each 
other without great rivalry, the opposite plan must 
have been pursued in the Roman states. It could have 
been attained only by a breakiug-up of the firmly 
united national body, which would have been attended 
with the giving-up of privileges centuries old. But it 
is a fact of experience, that a people will sooner give 
up a right secured by law, than a privilege sanctioned 
by time or custom. By the way of victory, conquest, 
and triumph, and in spite of these, Rome ran to meet 
its ruin. The state fell sick from its own greatness. 

The forces mentioned as contributing to the over- 
throw of the free government in Rome are about all 
which present themselves to us in the study of Roman 
history. At least, no new ones were added from the 
year 86 B.C. to the final crash. I will not go into the 
highly interesting struggle which the dying republic 
carried on against the near and nearer approaching 
monarchical encroachment ; and we will in conclusion 
only ask, How could Rome so long ward off monarclry? 
The cause of it is twofold. A people with whose 
manner of life and thought republican tendencies and 



HISTORY. 379 

customs have been most closely intwined for more 
than four centuries, — such a people can accustom 
themselves only very slowly to the sight of a monarch. 
His sudden appearance they are not able to endure. 
Secondly, it is natural that the nobles will not soon 
put up with the rule of one from their own number, to 
disturb them in their presumptive privileges. 

How powerful were these two elements of opposition 
to monarchy, is plainly seen in the history of that man, 
of whom his flatterers said that the imperial vocation 
was written on his brow. With what assiduity did 
Caesar labor at the erection of a royal, throne ! The 
power of royalty was already attained by him, chiefly 
through his accepting the perpetual dictatorship. There 
was lacking only the title to crown the labors of his 
life. But he was compelled to atone with his life for 
this concealed design. 

And yet his murderers were mistaken who performed 
the justifiable deed under the guidance of Brutus, if 
they believed that by the murder of the tyrant they 
had crushed tyranny, and restored life to the free 
o-overnment. Civil wars broke out afresh with unre- 
strained fury. But when the most daring republicans 
had fallen in the fierce contests, or by proscription, 
and the multitude longed for rest, it was possible for 
the crafty victor at Actium, Octavianus, to establish 
his imperial power, though invested with republican 
forms. 

But the Roman republic had been borne to its tomb, 
with no hope of a resurrection ! 



380 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 



A GLANCE INTO THE MIDDLE AGES. 

The general reader in this country knows little of 
the history of the Middle Ages ; but he has a dim idea 
that the historian, when painting a picture of mediaeval 
history, dips his brush in gray, and paints on dark 
background. This is not far from the literal truth. 
Though this period — from the destruction of the 
Western Roman Empire, A.D. 476, to the beginning 
of the Reformation, If) 17, — is the most lamentable in 
history, it is by no means unproductive of interesting 
lessons, not even to us who live in an age of unprece- 
dented enlightenment, and miraculous velocity in all 
domains of human exertion. I shall refrain from 
moralizing in this paper, and merely state facts which 
I trust will speak for themselves. 

After the chaos which followed in the wake of the 
great migration (from A.D. 375 till 572) had been 
disentangled to some degree ; after the natives, races, 
and tribes of Europe had each found a new point of 
centralization, and new states began to crystallize ; 
after the empires of the Goths had perished, and the 
Franks under Charlemagne (768 to 814) had removed 
the political centre of gravitation from the Tiber to the 
Rhine, — four hundred years after the first appearance 
of the Huns in Europe, — a new life began in history. 

The atrocities of the wandering swarms and barba- 
rous hordes had ceased. They had caused an almost 
incredible devastation in Europe, had virtually wiped 
out antique culture, destroyed the arts of peace, and 



HISTORY. 381 

disturbed all friendly relations and intercourse. The 
tempest, which for more than two hundred years had 
raged through the fairest portions of Europe, had spent 
its fury ; but the sequences of this unsettled state of 
affairs were terrible. The permanent results of the 
great chaos may be summarized in a few words : a 
general state of exhaustion ; subjugation of the com- 
mon people into serfdom or total slavery ; the estab- 
lishment of the "fist-law;" prevalence of barbarous 
manners and morals ; paralyzed commerce and indus- 
try ; almost exclusive practice in the use of weapons, 
and encouragement in the science of war. 

Numberless were the points of hostile contact be- 
tween men ; friendly relations and communication 
between neighbors were greatty diminished, almost 
wholly disappeared. Poverty and necessary privation, 
followed by oblivion of comfort and finer enjoyments 
of life, made intercourse with others, if not impossible, 
certainly undesirable. Utter despair had blunted the 
nobler feelings of man, and he sank to the level of the 
brute. With commiseration we look upon such dark 
scenes of unsociability, want of culture, and frightful 
degeneracy. 

Nature seemed to take part in this lamentable situa- 
tion, and revealed, in the sad shape of the country, 
the defects of human society. Even Italy, the garden 
of Europe, had changed to a wilderness of forests 
and swamps. Wolves lived in regions where formerly 
upon rich, fertile fields, happy human beings were wont 
to promenade. Worse even than in Italy it appears to 



382 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

have been beyond the Alps. In every province, large 
tracts of land lay waste. Not only cultivating hands, 
nay, owners of the land, were wanting. The right of 
occupancy found the widest and most daring interpre- 
tation. And the land which was under cultivation was 
more used for raising cattle than for agriculture. 

The greater part of the land was devoted to hunting, 
an occupation which was not a mere amusement, but 
a regular pursuit and a means of sustenance for the 
nobles. The least failure of crops, every devastation 
b} r an enemy, every unexpected passage of troops, 
caused a famine. The people provided only for the 
most pressing wants, and tilled the soil barely enough 
to meet these wants. Pestilence and famine prevented 
a great increase in the population, such as is witnessed 
in our century. 

Industry and commerce had come almost to a stand- 
still. The common people in their poverty made shift 
with the work of their unskilled hands. The few large 
land-owners employed serfs as mechanics, who attended 
to furniture, implements, and wearing-apparel, in the 
rudest possible manner. There were but few cities in 
Europe, and these were remnants of former Roman 
municipalities. These had degenerated to mere shadows 
of their former glory, and their sphere of industrial 
activity was exceedingly small. 

It is obvious, then, that the very requisites of com- 
merce were wanting ; namely, raw material and agri- 
cultural products, as well as products of industry, 
skill, and art. But also the conditions under which 



HISTORY. 383 

alone commerce can flourish, and which are indispens- 
able for intercommunication among nations, — to wit, 
securit}' of law, internal and external peace, and mutual 
acquaintance, — all these conditions were sadly want- 
ing. At no time had commercial intercourse between 
the different parts of Europe^, or between Europe and 
the countries of Asia, been wholly wanting. But dur- 
ing the age of the greatest darkness and insecurity, 
when the knowledge of luxuries, and, indeed, when 
man's needs and desires, were of the scantiest sort, 
and when roads and bridges had fallen into decay, and 
all the means of communication were of the rudest, 
this intercourse was comparatively insignificant. 

Aside from some dim reminiscences of ancient geo- 
graphical knowledge, kept alive in convent-schools and 
at the court of princes, more for the purpose of satisfy- 
ing idle curiosity or a fancy for the miraculous than 
for the value of true knowledge and for the sake of 
its practical utility, all knowledge of remote or even 
neighboring countries was lost during the anarchy and 
barbarism which prevailed in the earlier periods of the 
Middle Ages. Astonishing, really incredible, are the 
examples of ignorance mentioned — and often dis- 
played — by authors of that time. The provinces of 
one and the same empire or kingdom were separated 
by a dense fog of ignorance. It was a venturesome 
undertaking to travel a hundred miles. 

Though hospitality — generally a virtue fostered 
only in countries that are not visited frequently — 
was considered a duty, and enjoined by strict laws. 



384 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

it was inadequate under the prevailing misery, and 
could not take the place of inns and hosteliies such as 
came into existence later, when the population again 
became fluctuating, prompted by commerce and mani- 
fold industrial activities. Hospitality offered insuffi- 
cient protection against the insolent practitioners of 
the "fist-law," and against the barbarous hostility 
of local and provincial customs and laws. 

Robbery and theft became so common that every 
one lost his goods, and in many cases his life, who 
dared to travel without strong escort, or failed to buy 
from the lord of the soil the right of way through 
his possessions. The threats of worldly and clerical 
potentates against this prevailing spirit of lawlessness 
and violence were in vain. Robbing inoffensive wan- 
derers was not considered a crime. The "nobles" 
even degraded themselves to waylayers : why should 
their retainers have any scruples? 

Merchants, who were then scarcely more than ped- 
dlers, looked with dismay at every toll-gate, and trem- 
bled when they beheld the rudely reared walls of a 
strong castle loom up upon a hill or cliff. The knights 
were all robbers, sitting on high in their fortresses, 
and swooping down like hawks on the fords, on the 
highways, on the moorlands, on the forests, on the little 
settlements below them. Even the judges were rob- 
bers, thieves, and receivers of stolen goods. King 
Charles the Bald found it necessary to make his counts 
and judges swear solemnly that they would neither be 
thieves, nor receive stolen goods. 



HISTORY. 385 

When the traveller had succeeded in escaping the 
robbers, he was made the prey of barbarous law. 
Humanity and holy right cried in vain for sympathy 
with the shipwrecked. The captured cargo at the 
strand — yea, even the wrecked persons themselves — 
were claimed by the owners of the strand. In many 
countries it was permitted, by a law which had grown 
out of long custom, to seize the contents of a wagon 
that had been broken on the road by accident ; and a 
ship that had struck bottom on the river was often 
legally claimed by the lords of the abutting land. 

Any one who staid " a year and a day " at the same 
place became the serf of the lord of the place. The 
latter inherited the chattels of a traveller who died on 
his soil. In some countries the stranger stood com- 
pletely outside of law : he could be killed with impu- 
nity. Inhabitants of one and the same state were 
considered strangers if they travelled to a neighbor- 
ing province. Familiarity with the language was of 
no avail. 

During the reign of Charlemagne's weak successors, 
the inhabitants of the coast of France were driven 
into the interior by the Northmen, who devastated 
their houses and land. Instead of being supported 
and cared for by the people living inland, these fugi- 
tives were considered welcome booty, and pressed into 
slave-service. Horribile dictu ! 

Such was life during the Dark Ages, before the 
cities began to establish law and order, exercise self- 
government, and guarantee protection of property. It 



386 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. 

is easily seen that the never-dying spirit of war and 
wild anarchy made gentle manners impossible. The 
"nobles" in their secluded castles on the mountains 
gave themselves up to coarse debauchery ; the common 
people, under the yoke of serfdom, sank into brutality, 
or into a mere cowardly, joyless vegetating. It was 
but natural that the absolute want of artistic taste and 
scientific knowledge should prevent a better enjoyment 
of life, and that moral feelings and intellectual powers 
which were abused and trampled upon l:ry the pride 
of the nobles and an overbearing priesthood should 
develop hideous extuberances aud monstrous social 
deformities. 

However, even during these centuries of the coarsest 
brutality, precious virtues were found, — virtues which 
are rare in our age of superfine civilization. Thus we 
see among the better people of all strata of society 
the virtue of domesticity developed, especially in the 
gentler sex, — hospitality, frugality, unassuming integ- 
rity, and self-denying charity. In many gratifying 
and touching examples of such virtues, evidence is 
found, that, however depraved the age, there always 
remains a solidified residue of ethical culture which no 
vicissitudes can shake. The manifold afflictions and 
the never-ceasing storm in the political world led the 
people to religious contemplation ; and from their 
simplicity in matters of faith and devout trust arose 
consolations, noble blossoms of life, and a moral 
strength for which the proudest philosophy may well 
have envied the lowliest of toilers. 



history. 387 



INVENTIONS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. 

It is highly interesting, and no less instructive, to 
look back into history, and ruminate in far-distant cen- 
turies, to find the beginnings of culture as represented 
by inventions of various kinds. The great inventions 
of our age dwindle down somewhat when compared 
with inventions that gave rise to them. Who ever 
would have thought of a type- writer if Gutenburg had 
not thought of separating the letters of the wooden 
page of a Psalter? Who would have thought of a 
knitting-machine, if the needles in the hands of dili- 
gent women had not furnished generations with socks 
and stockings? And so on ad infinitum. 

Every inventor stands on the shoulders of others 
who have preceded him. A few statements as to the 
age of certain inventions and discoveries may give us 
a better idea of their value, and will certainly increase 
our appreciation of the wonderful velocity with which 
the human intellect has grown in civilized countries. 

From time immemorial the Germanic tribes (which 
term includes also the Anglo-Saxons) knew how to 
spin and weave flax, but they did not wear shirts until 
the seventh century after Christ ; and not until the 
fourteenth century had the shirt become a garment 
worn by all. 

Woollen garments were in use at the time of Charle- 
magne (768-814). Cotton was too expensive, and 
could not be used extensively ; that is. not until Vasco 
da Gaina had discovered the sea route to India. The 



388 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

culture of the silkworm was known in Greece at the 
time of the Emperor Justinian (555). The silkworm 
was brought to Spain by the Moors (800), and in 
France it was introduced in the wake of the first 
crusades. 

During the eleventh century the Arabs brought the 
art of making paper of cotton to Spain, and from there 
it rapidly spread over Europe. Linen paper was not 
known before the fourteenth century, and the Holland- 
ers were the first to manufacture it and extensively 
trade with it. 

Goose-quills have been in use ever since the sixth 
century. The art of knitting was, according to the 
best authorities, invented in North Germany (about 
1500). Ribbon-makers were numerous in Germany 
during the thirteenth, and button-workers (who, how- 
ever, worked exclusively in metal) in the fourteenth, 
century. 

. Glass, which was known to the ancients, was not 
used for window-panes until some time in the thirteenth 
century, and in churches it was used sooner than in 
dwellings. During the fifteenth century it aroused a 
great deal of wonder to find houses provided v/ith glass 
windows. Toward the end of the Middle Ages the 
first glass mirrors were made, but metallic mirrors 
predominated. 

Up to the fourteenth century open fireplaces were in 
use all over Central Europe ; after that stoves came in 
use, but chimneys were not built until the middle of the 
sixteenth century. 



HISTORY. 389 

Wooden spoons and plates in form of dishes were 
used by the ancient Germans ; knives came in use in 
the thirteenth, while forks and metallic spoons did not 
make their appearance until the sixteenth century. 

Their food was taken by all participants of the meal 
from the same bowl. Pots were made veiy early ; but 
they were made without enamel, as is seen from the 
urns excavated here and there. Oil-lamps were used 
for lighting the rooms. Salt was found and used very 
early. Barley and oats were brewed into mead, which 
was subsequently improved during the ninth century by 
the use of hops. Wine was known in the most ancient 
times. Sugar was obtained from Syria. Tea, coffee, 
chocolate, as well as tobacco, were unknown during the 
Middle Ages. 

Of the different kinds of grain now known, only 
barley and oats were raised ; for the other kinds, the 
climate seems to have been too severe. The plough 
was of rude construction, and was drawn by oxen. 
During the sixth centuiy rye was brought to Germany 
by Slavic tribes, while wheat was introduced by French- 
men who brought it from Italy. Buckwheat came by 
way of Greece into Central Europe, toward the end 
of the crusades (1291). In the most ancient times 
the people freed the wheat from the ear by stepping 
on and riding over it ; the flail was introduced by the 
Romans. 

Mining also came through the Romans, and even in 
Charlemagne's time metals were thus obtained. The 
Franks built water-mills at 500 after Christ : before 



390 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

that the people had only hand and tread mills. Wind- 
mills did not come into use until the tenth, and saw- 
mills in the fourteenth century. At about the same 
time, the pulling of wire was invented by a Nuremberg 
Citizen. Of course this led to the invention of needles 
and pins. Up to the ninth century, only sun-dials, 
water and sand clocks, were known. The first wheel- 
clocks were made in Italy. Padua is said to have had 
the first tower-clock in 1344 ; and at about 1500 a 
Nuremberg citizen invented the watches known from 
their forms as Nuremberg eggs. 

Under the influence of foreign commerce, manufac- 
tories of various kinds originated in Italian cities. 
Milan furnished the best and most costly weapons and 
armors ; Venice, the most elegant jewelry and articles 
of luxury ; Genoa and Bologna, the richest silk stuffs, 
satin, velvet, and embroideries. Many inventions of 
lasting value were made by these thrifty people. 
Spino of Piso invented a kind of magnifying lenses, 
the first spectacles ever made. In Fainza the process 
of pottery was invented, which is to this day unsur- 
passed (our so-called faience). At Venice the manu- 
facture of glass and mirrors became famous, and in 
this same city it was where the first clock with a 
pendulum was made. 

The invention of making paper from rags was made 
in Padua, and here it was where the first tallow candle 
was dipped. Bells were cast in Italy at about 400, 
but not until the middle of the sixth century were they 
found in general use in cloisters and churches. In the 



HISTORY. 891 

twelfth century the most noted bell-founderies were 
found in Nuremberg and Augsburg. Charlemagne 
procured a wind-organ in Constantinople, and had it 
put up in Aix-la-Chapelle ; thereupon the building of 
organs became a favorite industry in Central Europe. 
The most ancient organs had only ten keys, each 
between four and six inches wide ; these keys had to 
be knocked down with the fist. Our present organs 
with their complicated construction are inventions of 
very recent time. 

The art of sculpture was introduced into jGermany 
toward the end of the Middle Ages, and painters were 
known at the time of Henry the First. Engraving on 
copper was invented during the fifteenth century. 
Drug-stores were opened by Arabs who came by way 
of Spain, and in the thirteenth century Augsburg had 
the first drug-store ; but the druggists were grocers' 
and dealers in spices and comfits. Physicians, as the 
word is now applied, were not known in the Middle 
Ages, only ignorant quacks. The medical science 
took an upward start in consequence of the foundation 
of universities and scientific schools. 

NATURAL CALLING, OR NOT? 

Is every person predestined for a calling ? Approach 
the question regardless of preconceived notions, and 
you will have to consider that every one has his own 
peculiar face, his own form ; each of his limbs or hands 
is peculiarly shaped, and cannot be duplicated by that 
of any other human being. His senses and faculties 



392 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

are in their combination so wonderfully and peculiarly 
arranged, that there may perhaps be found a similar- 
ity, but never an exact duplicate. This proves, if any 
thing, that no two meii can be exactly alike in faculties, 
qualifications, tendencies, and accomplishments, so as 
to feel at any time, and under all circumstances, 
exactly the same impulse for action ; every one will 
move in a direction differing from that of all other 
men. Evidently, then, the peculiar mixture of which 
every individual consists tends towards confirming the 
belief that every one has a calling; that is, every person 
must be specially well fitted for one kind of work, and 
for no other as well. 

That would seem to settle the question , but it does 
so only apparently. The child is a "soft and yield- 
ing being;" plant-like, he accommodates himself to 
influences which play upon him. His aptitudes grow 
exuberantly on the one side, and become crippled on 
the other, as friendly or hostile influences prevail. A 
symmetrically shaped plant will become twisted and 
distorted if placed against a wall ; it depends upon 
the treatment of the gardener whether a tree will spend 
its energy in producing leaves or fruit. A boy of six 
years may have a talent for art ; his sense of form and 
color may be very pronounced : yet after five years he 
may be found to have apparently lost that faculty, and 
developed in a direction which makes the observer 
prophesy that the boy will become a great lawyer. 
And again, after some years, he may be found to have 
developed great skill in manual occupation, having 



HISTORY. 393 

apparently pressed into the background his liking for 
art and literature. 

These are no hypothetic cases : every observant 
educator will have come to the conclusion, ere this, 
that it is utterly unfruitful and perilous to fore-ordain 
a pupil's future. This being the case, it seems to me 
wise to follow the advice of eminent men : to wit, 
develop harmoniously all the talents that manifest 
themselves in the child, and leave the choice of occu- 
pation or calling to the developed and ripe judgment 
of the youth. Do not make this choice irrevocable. 
Give every one the greatest possible freedom for 
changing his profession, or occupation, or calling (or 
give it whatever name you will), if he comes to the 
conclusion that he missed it in his first choice. 

A human being who has had the chance and mani- 
fold opportunities for testing his natural gifts, and is 
permitted to exert himself in many directions, will 
certainly find his natural calling, and achieve great 
success. Let there be no arbitrary rules, no guild 
regulations ; but let us maintain that liberty of action 
which has made this nation what it is, the greatest, 
noblest, most talented, most energetic, most success- 
ful, and therefore -happiest, nation on the face of the 
earth. 



394 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE DAY. 



A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF MODERN HISTORY. 

(Characteristics of the new era: extension of man's horizon by- 
great discoveries; shaking of papacy and hierarchy by the Refor- 
mation; changes in the art of warfare; downfall of feudalism, 
and development of absolute monarchies; changed attitude of 
the states toward each other; balance of power; political and 
social revolutions. Four periods of modern history.) 

The beginning of the Middle Ages is marked by a 
general revolution all over the then known world. 
Great and powerful political structures were violently 
overthrown during the fourth and fifth centuries after 
Christ. The Roman Empire, then the centre of gravi- 
tation of political life in Europe, was shattered ; and 
amid and upon its ruins, Germanic tribes built new 
states. The limits of ancient history, therefore, are 
sharply defined. It appears that the beginning of 
modern history is not inaugurated by such violent 
changes. For, aside from the destruction of the 
Greek Empire by the Turks (1453), the European 
nations remain the same, and the boundaries of their 
possessions remain essentially unchanged. Yet, at the 
close of the fifteenth century, so many new events and 
important changes take place, that that centmy may 
justly be regarded the end of the Middle Ages. All 
political life, all relations among men, have since then 
assumed so different a character, that it seems justifi- 
able to give the time that elapsed since then the cap- 
tion of a grand division of history. In contradistinc- 
tion to ancient history, we call it modern history. 

First, the historical stage is enlarged almost im- 
measurably by the discoveries of Columbus and Vasco 



HISTORY. 395 

di Gama. While formerly the countries of the Medi- 
terranean were the only historical ground known, the 
whole face of the earth now comes into consideration. 
With the horizon of vision, the scope of thought, of 
power, of influence and action, is widened immensely. 
By means of commerce and the establishment of colo- 
nies, Europe gains a predominant influence over all 
other continents, and in return is made to feel the 
inevitable effects of contact with others. Its own 
conditions change perceptibly. 

Then the great structure of the Roman Church suf- 
fers a remarkable shock and subsequent changes, by 
means of the Reformation suggested by Martin Luther, 
whereby papacy and hierarchy fall from the height to 
which they had been raised during the Middle Ages. 
This is not accomplished by one man, nor in one stroke, 
but by a most remarkable series of contests in litera- 
ture and on the battle-field. And though the most 
powerful princes and the greatest generals during the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as Emperor 
Charles V., King Philip II., Duke Alba, Wallenstein, 
and Tilly, enter the arena in defence of papacy ; and 
though, in defence of the old Church, the most destruc- 
tive war known in all history, the Thirty Years' War, 
is fought, — nevertheless the Church reformation can- 
not be crushed, but makes great progress, especially in 
Northern Europe. In consequence of direct appeal to 
the Scriptures, freedom of faith and thought and in- 
vestigation in all domains of human exertion is estab- 
lished, and gains a foothold everywhere. Though the 



396 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

Roman Church does not succumb, it loses entire nations 
from its grasp, and is obliged to abandon its strict 
adherence to mediaeval principles and practices. In 
short, the Church is, though against its will, modern- 
ized like every thing else. Perhaps no other agency 
was more effectual in overthrowing papal authority 
than the direct appeal to the Holy Scriptures, which 
were made accessible by the invention of the art of 
printing. If there were no other great events to mark 
the beginning of a new era, this invention alone would 
be sufficient. 

Also in the organism of the states we notice remark- 
able changes. When during the Middle Ages the 
feudal system was in full bloom, there were literally 
only two classes which enjoyed civil rights : the clergy 
and the nobility. Under protection of the Church there 
arose by degrees political structures which claimed rec- 
ognition. And the remnants of ancient Roman munici- 
palities were gathered up ; the former communities were 
rejuvenated, and gained rights and privileges which 
made them more or less independent of feudal lords. 
They soon felt themselves strong enough to claim rec- 
ognition as a "third estate," that is, as a third com- 
ponent part of the state. Kings and emperors sought 
assistance from the cities against the arrogance of 
petty princes and crown-vassals, and were willing to 
grant liberties and privileges to the communities, which 
thus became the centres of civil liberty and virtue. 
In consequence of the rapid growth of the cities, 
the feudal system was shaken in its foundation ; and 



HISTORY. 897 

toward the close of the fifteenth century it may be said 
to have met its doom. 

Another very vital change is wrought by the new art 
of warfare, which came into general use toward the 
close of the Middle Ages in consequence of the re- 
invention of gunpowder. Ever since the thirteenth 
century, war was not in every case carried on with the 
assistance of feudal vassals, but in many cases with 
hired troops. This was done especially by the English 
kings on French soil. The victories won by the Swiss 
peasants over the mailed knights of Austria and Bur- 
gundy, and the panic that went before the foot-soldiers 
of the Turks (the so-called Jauitschars) , led to the con- 
viction that war could not be carried on except with 
great masses of infantry. But the nobles declined to 
serve as foot-soldiers with gun in hand. They preferred 
to fight on horseback with sword in hand. They left 
the gun in the hands of hired troops, reserving for 
themselves the positions of officers and commanders. 

However, with the decline of the feudal system, 
which was based upon birthright, the states of Europe 
did not at once receive a constitution which secured 
general liberty, that is, protection to every one 
against arbitrary action of others. What the " upper- 
classes " thus lost, did not profit the "lower," be- 
cause kings and princes, who formerly had but very 
limited power over their crown-vassals, now grew 
strong everywhere, and became absolute. This transit 
through absolutism was necessary, in order to enable 
the lower enslaved classes to enjoy the blessings of 



398 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

some liberty and almost entire civil equality. Before 
the majesty of the throne, all subjects became equal ; 
and it could not serve the absolute prince to give one 
class of his subjects great advantages over others. 

The transition from the feudal system to absolute 
monarchy took place in different ways. In some 
countries, as in England and Spain, the sovereign 
succeeded in breaking the power of his vassals so well, 
that they lost, one after another, their independence, 
and remained only a power in the state, as a class ; 
in other countries, notably in France, the king united 
in more peaceful manner the power of his vassals with 
his own ; and still in others, in Germany and Italy, 
the vassals succeeded in freeing themselves from their 
duties as vassals, and in becoming independent sove- 
reigns. Only very recently the different principalities 
in Italy were unified as one state ; and in Germany 
there are still some twenty odd states, though under 
the common leadership of Prussia. 

Lastly, the attitude of the states toward each other 
became vastly different from what it had been. Dur- 
ing the Middle Ages, the nations of the Christian 
Germanic world existed in entire isolation from one 
another. No nation troubled itself much about the 
affairs of the neighboring state. Only the Pope had 
ambassadors at the capitals of the different European 
countries ; and he mediated, interceded, or interfered, 
when occasion demanded it. When, in consequence 
of the Church reformation, the power of the Pope van- 
ished in entire nations of the North, and when inter- 



HISTORY. 399 

communication among the different countries increased 
rapidly, the Church could not act in that capacity any 
longer. Just as little could the waning power of the 
German emperor establish a central power, or act as 
court of arbitration, among the Christian nations of 
Europe. Still the one thought, that all the Christian 
states, nationally independent of each other as they 
were, should form a unit as against the Turks, be- 
came predominant. And from this thought is derived 
the other consequential idea, that all the states of 
Europe are by rights one family, a system of states. 
But since they are, and always were, of different 
sizes and degree of power, and France and Austria 
were the mightiest, it was thought that the equilibrium 
of power could best be preserved if the smaller states 
would hold the balance of power. This balance of 
power was often thrown into the scale of the one or 
the other, as the occasion seemed to suggest ; that is, 
as it became apparent that either the one or the other 
empire was about to become the universal monarchy in 
Europe. A natural sequence of this state of affairs was 
the change of mercenary troops into standing armies. 
These soon became oppressive burdens to the people ; 
as, for instance, when under Louis XIV. the French 
army, which had only sixteen thousand men at the time 
of Henry IV., was increased to one hundred and fifty 
thousand men. There were very important sequences 
to this vital change. In order to defray the expenses 
caused b} T the maintenance of large armies, new 
sources of national wealth had to be opened ; and all 



400 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

classes of society were now called upon, by legislation, 
to contribute, in form of taxes, to the income of the 
state. 

The enlisting of strong standing armies became so 
difficult in the course of time, that the rulers had to 
resort to national armies drafted from the people, 
regardless of wealth or social position of the individual. 

The enormous increase of duties and taxes finally 
awakened the desire of the lower classes, hitherto ex- 
cluded from the government, to take part in it. They 
did not care to contribute funds for the maintenance 
of the state, if they could not have a voice upon the 
manner of distribution of the funds. The provisions 
of the English constitution certainly acted as a stimu- 
lus upon the Continent. But the rulers and privileged 
classes were unwilling to grant to the common people 
the desired participation in the government. This 
refusal of just demands made the people more im- 
petuous ; and at last bloody revolutions and violent 
disturbances followed, which resulted in the common- 
ers' victory over the privileged classes. 

While thus, politically, the civilized world has come 
to a final solution, namely, to a form of government 
which is either the representative republic or the next 
best thing to it, a constitutional monarchy ; it is, as 
regards social relations, in the midst of powerful and 
conflicting currents caused by wonderful inventions, 
notably by the application of steam-power and elec- 
tricity, inventions which may be said to be still in 
their infancy. 



HISTORY. 401 

Four periods are to be distinguished in modern 

history. 

The first period extends from the beginning of the 
Reformation, 1517, to the conclusion of the Thirty 
Years' War, 1648. In this period, religion is the 
centre of all political commotion. 

The second period extends from the Westphalian 
Peace, 1648, to the beginning of the French Revolu- 
tion, 1789. In this period religion, as a political fac- 
tor, is replaced by purely worldly interests. France 
gains for a short time supremacy over the Continent ; 
England becomes the ruler of the sea ; Sweden recedes 
before advancing Russia ; Prussia is elevated, by the 
genius of Frederick the Great, to a European great 
power ; and the English colonies in North America 
secure their independence, and propagate the idea of 
republicanism. 

The third period extends from the beginning of the 
French Revolution, 1789, to the second Parisian 
peace, 1815. This is the time in which ancient histor- 
ical right is fought violently ; in which the people 
wrestle with their oppressors, and endeavor to replace 
historical by natural right. The French Revolution 
convulses all European states, but does not succeed in 
establishing universal freedom. It elevates Napoleon, 
who temporarily subdues Europe under an unendurable 
militaiy despotism. 

The fourth period extends from the second Parisian 
peace, 1815, to the close of the recent Franco-German 
war, 1871. Its character is a continual wrestling 



402 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

between absolutism and constitutionalism, between 
conservatism and liberalism. As soon as the people 
had gained new strength after the exhaustive Napo- 
leonic wars, the desire for more liberal political insti- 
tutions were awakened anew. France again took the 
lead. The July revolution in 1830, the February 
revolution in 1848, caused the granting of constitu- 
tional form of government in all countries in Europe, 
except in Russia and Turkey. And the liberation of 
slaves in America, of serfs in Russia, is to be classed 
among the manifestations of this universal demand 
for liberty. Aside from this popular demand, there 
is another most powerful current, which is drifting 
toward consolidation and unification of nations. We 
notice its manifestations in Italy, 1859 ; in Germany, 
1870; in Ireland, and on the Balkan peninsula: but 
they have occurred so recently, that a mere mention 
must suffice. 

WHAT IS NIHILISM? 

Nihilism is a term very hard to define. If you put 
the question to a Russian, you will scarcely obtain a 
precise answer, certainly not a satisfactory one. His 
answer will be in accordance with his social position 
and his mode of thinking. So the Russian general will 
say, " A Nihilist ? Well, he is a fellow who does not 
respect the Lord on high, not even his emperor." Old 
men, who have their origin in a time in which man's 
thoughts and actions moved in firmly established 
grooves, will say, ■" A Nihilist? Why, he is a man 



HISTORY. 403 

without principles." If you ask a young man, per- 
haps a student, he will answer, " A Nihilist? Ah ! he 
is the bearer of Russia's future." Most people shrug 
their shoulders, and answer you, "A Nihilist? Well, 
you see, that is an annihilist." 

It is a thankless task to force an idea like this into 
the Procrustes bed of a definition. We all think, un- 
doubtedly, that we have a clear comprehension of the 
American " go-ahead-ness," yet we should need a good 
many words if we were called upon to explain the 
term. If it manifests itself in the way it was mani- 
fested in Cincinnati during the late flood, we may think 
it a virtue. Again, if it manifests itself in careless- 
ness in the erection of bridges and other structures 
which show dilapidation before they are completed, 
that very go-ahead-ness may be termed a crime. 

There is a word in the Russian language used quite 
frequently. It is Nitscheivo: Never mind, Don't care ! 
You can hear it in all classes of society, and at every 
occasion. Every thing the Russian thinks, feels, and 
does seems saturated with this Nitscheivo. A criminal 
carelessness pervades every thing in Russia. Now, 
this connection between a national phrase, and a mode 
of thought which seems to be national also, is no 
accidental connection. An autocratic government like 
that of Russia seems to nurture a carelessness as we 
find it there among all classes of society. There is no 
proper Held of activity for the Russian youth, except 
the career of an office-holder ; and that does not afford 
satisfaction, either for ambition or for other high and 



404 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 

noble motives. They have no arena in which they 
might measure and develop their talents. 

Our country will never permit the growth of a disease 
like Nihilism, because the inborn rights of the human 
being are respected, even in the child. In Russia, the 
individual person counts for nothing : he derives all 
his social value from the Emperor. He makes the 
laws, and ninety millions of subjects must obey. It is 
always a characteristic indication of a strong revolu- 
tionary current in a state, when people dare to attrib- 
ute to the government the crimes its subjects commit ; 
and that is done in Russia every day. 

The stupid masses of the people consider the auto- 
cratic regime and the cleptocratic office-holder tradi- 
tions just as sacred as the dogmas of their orthodox 
faith. Iu diametrical opposition to this immovable 
sediment of society, we find a younger generation 
nurtured with the liberal and radical ideas of Western 
Europe. If these ideas were as well digested in Russia 
as they are in Western Europe, they might tend towards 
elevating the Slavic race. But that is not the case. 
The great majority, even of the better-educated class, 
is of the opinion that the time for a constitutional 
government has not yet come. Hence this time offer- 
mentation, and the exceptional force of Nihilism, which 
has in the course of time developed into destructive- 
ness, iconoclasm in the widest sense of the word. 



UISTOIiY. 405 

A TALK WITH MY BOYS. 

The boys had had a lesson in American history. 
The Revolutionary War had been the subject of the 
lesson. The rather clumsy way in which they applied 
the word " revolution " made me suspicious in regard 
to their comprehension of the word " revolution : " so 
I interrupted the easy flow of catechization by asking 
the boys, What is a revolution ? A blank stare was 
the answer. 

After a few moments the boldest ventured to define 
it by saying, "It is a great state-action." Then a 
more practical head suggested that he could not see the 
difference between the revolution of a wheel and that 
of a state, for every revolution of a state that he had 
heard of was a turning-over, or a complete revolving of 
things that were time-honored. This was as shrewd an 
answer as I could have expected. I dwelt upon it, 
touching upon the etymology of the word, until I had 
the definition clearly established ; referring to the fact 
that in a state revolution the government is upset, 
overturned. 

And now the boys seemed to me ready for the next 
step. So I asked, " What is the difference between 
a revolution and a rebellion? Why is not the secession 
of the Southern States called a revolution also? I am 
sure the government was upset." The boys seemed 
nonplussed. I saw them think hard. Finally one ven- 
tured to say, "I think I can answer the question." 
Said he, " If the secession of the Southern States had 



406 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

been not merely temporary, but had become per- 
manent, then it would have been called a revolution, 
that is, a complete revolving of the government. But 
the opposite took place. The secession was not suc- 
cessful, and the States were obliged to return under the 
old established government. Thus, if the wheel had 
begun to go round, it was forced backward into its old 
position. So I define a rebellion by saying, ' an un- 
successful attempt at revolution, or an unsuccessful 
revolution, in short.' " 

Call this clumsy logic, if }'ou please: it was a neat 
and shrewd way of clearing up an obscure idea. 

OUR COUNTRY. 

If the fathers of our Republic could to-day see the 
proud and powerful union of States, the foundation of 
which they laid a little more than one hundred and 
ten years ago, what astonishment, what admiration, 
what justifiable pride, would fill their hearts! The 
thirteen Colonies clustered along the Atlantic coast, 
scarcely able to resist their oppressors, have become a 
vast structure that reaches from ocean to ocean, from 
the dreary regions of the icy North, to the fertile 
plains of the sunny South ; immeasurably rich in natu- 
ral products of all zones, in inexhaustible treasures 
of the deep, in products of a fabulously developed 
industry ; rich in credit, honor, reputation, and author- 
ity before the world ; richer still in intelligence, energy, 
enterprise, and inventive power of its citizens ; hurry- 
ing onward in impetuous flight in all domains of human 



HISTORY. 407 

exertion, and snatching the palm of victor}' from the 
countries of the Old World, that boast of a civilization 
a thousand years old. 

The genius of liberty and independence, the crea- 
tive power of unfettered self-activity, of unrestrained 
development, inspired the originally small Union ; and 
one hundred 5-ears — a short space of time in the life 
of a nation — sufficed to elevate it to one of the great 
powers of the world, looked upon by monarchical 
Europe with envy and badly concealed anxiety. And 
yet the young giant has not reached his full growth : 
yet daily new blood rushes into his veins, swelling 
them to renewed ardor ; he peoples the wilderness ; 
and before a second century has come to its close, the 
stars and stripes are destined to wave over the greater 
part of this continent which fate seems to have allotted 
to him. 

(The above may be used as a declamation. It is 
suited to awaken patriotism, and may therefore be 
applied in other than history classes.) 

WHAT I HEARD FROM THE STUMP. 

One day I heard a man speak from the stump ; 
and it seemed to me, he spoke in pica type, not in 
minion. Said he, " We are living off the honesty of 
Washington, Jefferson, and Franklin; and I tell you, 
that stock of honesty is well-nigh used up. It is 
about time for us to develop some of our own. 
Wherever I turn, — to politics, to commerce, to 
industry, to the financial world, to law, to medicine, 



408 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. 

to education, to the ministry, — everywhere I find 
dishonesty, cheating, ballot-box stuffing, quackery in 
medicine, charlatanry in every field of human exer- 
tion, corruption on the bench, show and varnish in 
education. 

" Boys, look back into history ! When the proverb- 
ial simplicity, honesty, uprightness, and patriotism of 
Cincinnatns, Fabricius, Fabius, and other Roman lead- 
ers, vanished, then the star of the Roman empire be- 
gan to decline. History repeats itself; only don't 
forget that we are living in a time in which events, 
things, and persons come and go much faster than at 
the time of the Roman republic. Mark my words, 
boys, and replenish our stock of honesty, civil virtue, 
and patriotism. Poor little George's virtues won't 
hold out much longer. " 



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TEN BOYS 

WHO LIVED ON THE ROAD FROM LONG AGO TO NOW. 

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THE AKYAN BOY, THE PERSIAN BOY, THE GREEK BOY, THE ROMAN 

BOY, THE SAXON BOY. THE PAGE. THE ENGLISH LAD. THE 

PURITAN BOY, THE YANKEE BOY, THE BOY OF 1S85. 

And giving entertaining and valuable information upon the manner* 
and customs of the different nations from Aryan age to now. 

The poet John G. Whittier says of it: — 

" I have been reading the new book bv Jane Andrews, ' Ten Boys who Lived 
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joyable to the boy of our period than the story of how the boys of all ages lived 
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This may he considered a sequel to The Seven Little Sisters, in 
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each, in relation to its childhood, are naturally and pleasingly given. 



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with great aptness to scenes and personages which history has made famous. 
It is a chatty narrative of travel." — Concord Monitor. 
FORE AND AFT 
A Story of Actual Sea-Life. By Robert B. Dixon, M.D. $1.25. 

Travels in Mexico, with vivid descriptions of manners and customs, form a 
large part of this striking narrative of a fourteen-months' voyage. 
VOYAGE OF THE PAPER CANOE 
A Geographical Journey of Twenty-five Hundred Miles from Quebec to the 

Gulf of Mexico. By Nathaniel H. Bishop. With numerous illustra- 
tions and maps specially prepared for this work. Crown 8 vo. $1.50. 

" Mr. Bishop did a very bold thing, and has described it with a happy 
mixture of spirit, keen observation, and bo?ihomie." — London Graphic. 
FOUR MONTHS IN A SNEAK-BOX 
A Boat Voyage of Twenty-six Hundred Miles down the Ohio and Mississippi 

Rivers, and along the Gulf of Mexico. By Nathaniel H. Bishop. With 

numerous maps and illustrations. $1.50. 

" His glowing pen-pictures of ' shanty-boat ' life on the great rivers are 
true to life. His descriptions of persons and places are graphic." — Zion's 
Herald. 

A THOUSAND MILES' WALK ACROSS SOUTH AMERICA, 

Over the Pampas and the Andes 
By Nathaniel H. Bishop. Crown 8vo. New edition. Illustrated. $1.50. 

" Mr. Bishop made this journey when a boy of sixteen, has never forgotten 
it, and tells it in such a way that the reader will always remember it, and 
wish there had been more." 
CAMPS IN THE CARIBBEES 
Being the Adventures of.a Naturalist Bird-hunting in the West-India Islands. 

By Fred A. Oher. New edition. With maps and illustrations. $ 1.50. 

" During two years he visited mountains, forests, and people, that few. if 
any, tourists had ever reached before. He carried his camera with him, and 
photographed from nature the scenes by which the book is illustrated." — 
Loic is7'illc Com rie r- Joit ma I. 
ENGLAND FROM A BACK WINDOW; With Views of 

Scotland and Ireland 
By J. M Bailey, the " ' Danbury News ' Man." 121110. $t 00. 

" The peculiar humor of this writer is well known. The British Isles have 
never before been looked at in just the same way, — at least, not by any <>ne 
who has notified us of the fact. Mr. Bailey's travels possess, accordingly, a 
value of their own for the reader, no matter how many previous 
journeys in the mother country he may have read." — Rochester Express. 



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HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW 

His Life, His Works, His Friendships. By George Lowell Austin. 

Profusely illustrated. Cloth, $2.00. New edition. Formerly published by 

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" We have here a clear and popular presentation of the poet's literary life. 
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LIFE AND TIMES OF WENDELL PHILLIPS 

By George Lowell Austin. With steel portrait and illustrations. Cloth, 
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and there are reminiscences of the man by some of his close friends and asso- 
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Wendell Phillips's Lectures, Orations, and Letters, to 1861. 563 pages. 

Library edition. 8vo $2 50 

Popular edition, with Biographical Sketch, i6mo • 1 00 

The Scholar in a Republic. Paper, 8vo 25 

Eulogy of Garrison. Paper, 8vo 25 

Lost Arts Paper, 8vo 25 

Daniel O'Connell. Paper, 8vo 25 

Labor Question. Paper, 8vo 25 

LIFE AND DEEDS OF GENERAL U. S. GRANT 

By Rev. P. C. Headley and George Lowell Austin. Profusely illustrated. 

Cloth, $1.50. 

The materials for the early years of the subject of this popular biography 
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Oliver Optic's OUR STANDARD BEARER 

Or the Life of General Ulysses S. Grant, his youth, his manhood, his cam- 
paign, and his eminent services in the reconstruction of the nation his sword 
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" It is written in Mr. Adams's happiest vein, and is a most unique and 

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